Input Use Efficiency for Food and Environmental Security

Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
About the Editors
1: Input Use Efficiency in Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems to Manage the Footprints for Food and Environmental Security
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Strategies to Inputs Use Efficiency
1.2.1 Zero Tillage
1.2.2 Mulching
1.2.3 Need-Based Site Specific Fertilization
1.2.3.1 Soil Test Based Fertilization
1.2.3.2 Leaf Color Chart/Green Seeker
1.2.3.3 Chlorophyll Meter
1.2.3.4 Omission Plot Technique
1.2.3.5 Using Nutrient Expert
1.2.4 Crop Residue Management
1.2.4.1 Biochar/Paralichar
1.2.4.2 Paddy Compost
1.2.4.3 Other Options
1.3 Water Footprints for Food and Environmental Security
1.3.1 Short Duration Rice Cultivars
1.3.2 Date of Rice Transplanting
1.3.3 Direct Seeding of Rice
1.3.4 Laser Land Leveling
1.3.5 Permanent Beds
1.3.6 Soil Matric Potential Based Irrigation
1.3.7 Crop Diversification
1.4 Energy Footprints for Food and Environmental Security
1.4.1 Mechanical Transplanting of Rice
1.4.2 Happy Seeder
1.5 Impact of RCTs on the Soil Properties
1.6 Conservation Agriculture
1.7 Reducing Food Loss and Wastage for Reduced Global Food Production Targets
1.8 Conclusions, Identified Gaps, and Upcoming Strategies
1.8.1 Identified Gaps
1.8.2 Upcoming Strategies
References
2: Agricultural Input Use Efficiency and Climate Change: Ways to Improve the Environment and Food Security
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Climate Change and Variability
2.2.1 Observed Climatic Trends
2.2.2 Future Climate Projections
2.3 Crop Response to Climate Change
2.3.1 Effect of Temperature/Heat Stress
2.3.2 Effect of Rainfall/Water Stress
2.3.3 Effect of Solar Radiation
2.3.4 Effect of CO2
2.3.5 Effect of Nutrient Stress
2.4 Climate Change and Input Use Efficiency of Crops
2.4.1 Heat Use Efficiency
2.4.2 Radiation Use Efficiency
2.4.3 Water Use Efficiency
2.4.4 Nutrient Use Efficiency
2.5 Effect of Climate Change on Food and Environmental Security
2.6 Ways to Improve Crop Yield and Input Use Efficiency to Attain Food and Environmental Security
2.6.1 Developing Stress-Resistant Varieties
2.6.2 Alteration in Sowing Time
2.6.3 Irrigation Management
2.6.4 Mulch Application
2.6.5 Fertilizer Management
2.6.6 Crop Simulation Modeling
2.6.7 Remote Sensing and Crop Yield Estimation
2.7 Conclusion
References
3: Balanced and Secure Micronutrients in Crop Field Influence the Efficient Utilization of Macronutrients or Vice-Versa
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Essential Macro- and Micronutrients for Sustainable Crop Production
3.2.1 How Macronutrients Help Plants for Proper Growth and Development
3.2.2 How Micronutrients Provide Major Benefits to the Soil
3.3 Importance of Macro- and Micronutrients for Sustainable Crop Production
3.3.1 Improving Crop Yield and Quality with the Combination of Macro- and Micronutrients
3.3.2 Improving Crop Yield and Quality Through the Application of Balanced Fertilizers
3.3.3 Improving Fertilizer Use Efficiency with Micronutrient fertilizers
3.4 Conclusion
References
4: Use of Agrochemicals in Agriculture: Alarming Issues and Solutions
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Influence of Agricultural Inputs on Economic Development
4.3 Use of Chemical Inputs in Agriculture: An Overview
4.4 Indiscriminate Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides and Its Impacts
4.4.1 Fertilizers and Its Impacts
4.4.1.1 Impact on Agricultural Ecosystem
4.4.1.2 Impact on Water Bodies
4.4.1.3 Impact on Environment
4.4.2 Pesticides and Its Impact
4.4.2.1 Impact on Agricultural Ecosystem
4.4.2.2 Impact on Water Bodies
4.4.2.3 Impact on Environment
4.5 Strategies for Judicious Use of Inputs in Agriculture
4.5.1 Sustainable Resource Management
4.5.1.1 Conservation Agriculture Practices vis-a-vis Climate-Smart Technologies for Improved Input Use
4.5.1.2 Site-Specific Nutrient Management for Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency
4.5.1.3 Role of Precision Agriculture
4.5.1.4 Integrated Management of Pests and Diseases
4.5.1.5 Agricultural Waste Management for Food Security
4.5.1.6 Use of Nano-Materials for Better Input Management
4.5.2 Biotechnological Tools in Reducing Chemical Load
4.5.3 Policy Interventions
4.6 Conclusion
References
5: Agronomic Strategies for Improving Micronutrient Use Efficiency in Crops for Nutritional and Food Security
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Influence of Micronutrients on Human Health
5.2.1 Zinc Deficiency
5.2.2 Iron Deficiency
5.2.3 Copper Deficiency
5.2.4 Iodine Deficiency
5.2.5 Selenium Deficiency
5.3 Influence of Micronutrients on Animals Health
5.3.1 Zinc Deficiency
5.3.2 Iron Deficiency
5.3.3 Manganese Deficiency
5.3.4 Copper Deficiency
5.3.5 Molybdenum Deficiency
5.3.6 Iodine Deficiency
5.3.7 Boron Deficiency
5.4 Environmental Aspects of Micronutrients
5.5 Sources of Soil Micronutrients
5.6 Micronutrients in Plant System
5.7 Micronutrients´ Uptake Mechanisms
5.8 Factors Affecting Micronutrients Availability
5.8.1 Soil pH
5.8.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
5.8.3 Soil Redox Potential
5.8.4 Rhizosphere
5.9 Biofortification
5.10 Concluding Remarks
5.11 Ways Forward
References
6: Advances in Input Management for Food and Environmental Security
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Next-Generation Input Management Technologies: Concepts and Prospects
6.2.1 Perspective Mathematics Revolution for Input Management
6.2.2 Perspective Sensing Revolution for Input Management
6.3 Perspective Automation Technology for Input Management
6.4 Next-Generation Plant Breeding to Increase the Utilization Efficiency of Farm Inputs
6.5 Dietary and Ecological Safety Through Novel Technology: Filling the Gap Add a Flow Chart
6.5.1 Improved Crop Breeding Adapting to Environmental Changes
6.5.2 Increasing Cropping Intensity
6.5.3 Improved Soil and Water Management
6.5.4 Increase Livestock and Pasture Productivity
6.5.5 Reduced Loss and Waste of Food
6.5.6 Reduced Biofuel Production in Agricultural Lands
6.5.7 Conservation and Restoration of Natural Ecosystems and Restricted Shifting Cultivation
6.5.8 Increase Fish Production
6.5.9 Reduce GHGs Emissions from Agricultural Production
6.5.10 Reducing Pesticide Risks to Farmers and the Environment
6.5.11 Harnessing Trade and E-Commerce
6.6 Next-Generation Modeling Tools for Sustainable Input Management and Crop Production
6.6.1 Evaluation of Input Uncertainties
6.6.2 Model Design Criteria for Future Generation
6.6.2.1 User-Friendly, Simple Interface
6.6.2.2 Involvement of Stakeholders
6.6.2.3 Integrated Approach
6.6.2.4 Complexity, Quick, and Invisible Back-End Model
6.6.2.5 Scenarios-Based Approach
6.6.2.6 Tackle the Uncertainty
6.7 Next-Generation Input Management Technologies for Food and Environmental Security
6.7.1 Food Security
6.7.2 Input Management Technologies for Environmental Security
6.7.3 Innovation for Sustainable Agriculture
6.7.4 Management of Agroecosystems Using the Framework of Ecosystem Services
6.7.5 Agroforestry for the Provision of ESS and Sustainability of the Agriculture System
6.8 Science and Technology for Food Security
6.8.1 Improvement in Agricultural Productivity Through Science and Technology
6.8.2 Crop Production and Plant Varieties Improvement Through Conventional Cross-Breeding
6.8.3 Increase in Agricultural Production Through Genetically Engineered Crops
6.8.4 Crop Yield Improvement Through Soil Management
6.8.5 Availability of Water for Food Production Through Irrigation Technologies
6.8.6 Increasing Regional and Global Stage Agricultural RandD Investments
6.9 Challenges for Adaptation of Next-Generation Input Management Technologies
6.9.1 Major Challenges
6.10 Conclusion
References
7: Reduction of Energy Consumption in Agriculture for Sustainable Green Future
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Direct Energy
7.1.2 Indirect Energy
7.1.3 Global Energy Use Pattern of Agriculture
7.1.4 Energy Use Pattern in Indian Agriculture
7.1.5 Need for Achieving Energy Efficiency
7.2 Traditional Farming and Energy Use
7.2.1 Crops and Cropping System
7.2.2 Tillage and Land Preparation
7.2.3 Methods of Sowing
7.2.4 Crop Residue Management
7.2.5 Weed Management
7.2.6 Energy Efficient Irrigation Techniques
7.2.6.1 Energy Efficient Pumping
7.2.6.2 Smart Water Use Techniques
7.2.7 Nutrient Management
7.2.7.1 Amount of Fertilizer Use
7.2.7.2 Nutrient Source
7.2.7.3 Time of Fertilizer Application
7.2.7.4 New Approaches
7.2.8 Harvesting Techniques
7.2.9 Postharvest Management
7.3 Protected Cultivation and Energy Use Pattern
7.4 Alternative Land Use Management
7.5 Efficient Livestock Production and Management
7.6 Policy and Institutional Support
7.6.1 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
7.6.2 Energy Saving Through Micro-Irrigation
7.6.3 Efficient Pumping Techniques
7.6.4 Policies for Improved Water and Energy Efficiencies
7.7 Conclusions
7.8 Future Prospectus
References
8: Carbon Farming: For Climate-Smart Agriculture and Environmental Security
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept of C Farming
8.3 Current Farming Systems and Their Impact on Environment
8.3.1 Land Degradation
8.3.2 Eutrophication
8.3.3 Excessive Use of Chemical Fertilizer
8.3.4 Intensive and Excessive Soil Tillage
8.3.5 Excessive Use of Pesticide
8.4 Contribution of Agricultural Sector in Climate Change
8.4.1 Methane Emission from Rice Field
8.4.2 Livestock Production and Methane Emission
8.5 Present Scenario of C Trading in Indian Agriculture
8.5.1 C Trading Status of India
8.5.2 C Market Potential for India
8.6 Climate-Smart C Farming Techniques for Environmental Security
8.7 Mitigation of Climate Change through C Farming
8.8 C Outputs in Indian Agriculture
8.8.1 Climate-Smart Mitigation Strategies
8.8.2 Challenges in Adoption
8.9 Government Policies to Minimize the C Emissions
8.9.1 Kyoto Protocol
8.9.2 EU Emissions Trading Scheme
8.9.3 Climate Change Act 2008
8.9.4 The C Plan
8.10 C Stabilization
8.10.1 Mechanisms of C Stabilization
8.11 Future Prospects of Research
8.12 Conclusion
References
9: Judicious Soil Management for Having Improved Physical Properties of Soil and Input Use Efficiency
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Scope of Improving Soil Physical Properties and Input Use Efficiency in India
9.3 Management Options for Improving Soil Physical Properties
9.3.1 Manures and Fertilizers Management
9.3.2 Soil Amendments
9.3.3 Tillage
9.3.4 Compaction
9.3.5 Mulching
9.3.6 Conservation Agriculture
9.4 Techniques for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
9.4.1 Crop Management
9.4.2 Crop Type
9.4.3 Variety
9.4.4 Planting Geometry
9.4.5 Intercropping
9.4.6 Sowing Time
9.4.7 Fertilization
9.4.8 Weed Management
9.5 Irrigation Management
9.5.1 Critical Crop Growth Stage Approach
9.5.2 Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed (FIRB) planting
9.5.3 Alternate Furrow Irrigation Method
9.5.4 Micro-irrigation
9.5.5 Sensor-Based Irrigation
9.5.6 Automated Smart Irrigation
9.5.7 Mulching
9.5.8 Tillage Practices
9.6 Techniques for Enhancing Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE)
9.6.1 Balanced Fertilization
9.6.2 Selection of Crop and Variety
9.6.3 Intercropping
9.6.4 Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
9.6.5 Addition of Organic Matter
9.6.6 Conservation Agriculture
9.6.7 Application of Novel Fertilizers
9.6.8 Fertigation
9.6.9 Precision Nutrient Management
9.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
10: Input Use Efficiency for Improving Soil Fertility and Productivity
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Trends of Increasing Food Demand by Growing Population in Future
10.3 Intensive Agriculture with Modern Technologies Deteriorating Soil Health
10.3.1 Impact of Land-Use Change on Soil Health
10.3.2 Impact of Heavy Fertilizer Use on Soil Health
10.3.3 Impacts of Pesticides on Soil Health
10.3.4 Impact of Using Heavy Machinery on Soil Health
10.4 Strategies to Enhance Input Use Efficiency to Improve Soil Fertility and Productivity
10.4.1 Residues Management
10.4.1.1 In Situ Incorporation of Crop Residues
10.4.1.2 Surface Retention of Crop Residues
10.4.1.3 Crop Residues as Biochar
10.4.1.4 Crop Residues for Composting
10.4.2 Precision Nutrient Management with Modern Concept
10.4.2.1 Right Product
10.4.2.2 Right Rate
10.4.2.3 Right Time
10.4.2.4 Right Place
10.4.2.5 Site-Specific Nutrient Management
10.4.3 Integrated Nutrient Management
10.5 Frontier Agricultural Technologies for Improving Soil Health by Enhancing Input Use Efficiency
10.5.1 Climate-Smart Agriculture
10.5.2 Organic Agriculture
10.5.3 Nanotechnology-Based Input Management
10.5.4 Bio-Stimulates-Based Crop Production
10.5.5 Conservation Agriculture
10.5.6 Sustainable Land Management
10.5.7 Vertical/Sky Farming
10.6 Constraints to Improve Soil Health
10.6.1 Clean Cultivation
10.6.2 Frequent Mechanical Tillage
10.6.3 Quality of Irrigation Water
10.6.4 Excessive Fertilization
10.6.5 Injudicious Use of Chemical Pesticide
10.7 Conclusions and Future Thrust
References
11: Efficient Use of Nitrogen Fertilizers: A Basic Necessity for Food and Environmental Security
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Fate of Fertilizer Nitrogen in the Soil-Plant System
11.3 Measuring Fertilizer Nitrogen Use Efficiency
11.4 Fertilizer Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Crop Production
11.5 Fertilizer Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Relation to Environmental Security
11.6 Economic Aspects of Fertilizer Nitrogen Use Efficiency
11.7 Improving Fertilizer Nitrogen Use Efficiency
11.8 Conclusions
References
12: Phosphorus Availability in Soils and Use Efficiency for Food and Environmental Sustainability
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Crop Response to Fertilizer-P Application
12.3 Factors Affecting P Availability
12.3.1 Soil pH and P Availability
12.3.2 Organic Matter of Soil and P Availability
12.3.3 Dominant Clay Type, Soil Texture, and P Availability
12.3.4 Calcium Carbonate and P Availability
12.3.5 Free and Amorphous Fe and Al Oxides and P Availability
12.3.6 Application of Organic Manures and P Availability
12.3.7 Soil Moisture Status and P Availability
12.3.8 Soil Enzymatic Activity and P Availability
12.4 Phosphorus Movement and Environmental Degradation
12.5 Phosphorus Fractions in Soils
12.6 Phosphorus Sorption and Release Kinetics
12.7 Mineral Solubility and Phosphorus Chemistry
12.8 Artificial Intelligence for Predicting Soil P Availability
12.9 Conclusions
References
13: Role of Potassium for Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency in Agriculture
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 The Role of K in Plants
13.1.2 Potassium Uptake by Plants
13.1.3 Potassium Use Efficiency (KUE)
13.1.4 Nutrient Use Efficiency Estimation in Plants
13.2 Potassium for Improving Nutrient Use Efficiency
13.2.1 Potassium and Nitrogen Use Efficiency
13.2.2 Potassium and Other Nutrient´s Use Efficiency
13.3 Conclusions
References
14: Integrated Approaches for Biofortification of Food Crops by Improving Input Use Efficiency
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Reasons for Low Micro/Trace Elements in Human Being
14.3 Correction of Micronutrients Deficiency in Human Being
14.4 Enriching Cereal Grains with Micronutrients
14.5 Agronomic Approaches for Biofortification
14.5.1 Zinc Use Efficiency under Different Fertilization Application Timing and Methods
14.5.2 Soil Application, Foliar Application, and Seed Priming
14.5.3 Nutrient Use Efficiency and Interaction with Other Nutrients
14.5.3.1 Nitrogen
14.5.3.2 Phosphorous
14.5.3.3 Potassium
14.5.3.4 Farmyard Manures
14.5.3.5 Integrated Nutrient Management
14.5.3.6 Simultaneous Use of Zinc, Iodine, Selenium, and Iron
14.5.3.7 Foliar Fertilization with Pesticides
14.5.3.8 Crop Performance High Zn Seed
14.6 Genetic Approaches for Biofortification
14.7 Integrating Genetic and Agronomic Approaches
14.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
15: Enhancing Water Use Efficiency for Food Security and Sustainable Environment in South Asia
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Water Resources of South Asia
15.3 Water Application Efficiency and Water Productivity: Concepts, Definitions, Measurements
15.3.1 Water Productivity Concepts and Definitions
15.3.2 Water Productivity Measurement
15.4 Approaches for Higher Water Productivity
15.4.1 Establishment Techniques
15.4.1.1 Smart Seeding Method in Rice
15.4.1.2 Zero-Tillage in Wheat
15.4.1.3 Surface Mulching/Residue Retention
15.4.1.4 Raised Bed Planting
15.4.2 Irrigation Scheduling Approaches
15.4.2.1 Climate-Based Approaches
15.4.2.2 Evaporativity-Based Approach
15.4.2.3 Soil-Based Approach
15.4.2.4 Plant-Based Approach
15.4.2.5 Deficit Irrigation (DI) Approach
15.4.3 Drip Irrigation System
15.5 Conservation Agriculture for Increasing Water Use Efficiency
15.5.1 Crop Water Use and Water Productivity under Conservation Agriculture
15.5.2 Effect of Conservation Agriculture Practices on Water Use Efficiency in Major Cereal-Based Systems
15.5.2.1 Rice-Wheat System
15.5.2.2 Maize-Wheat and Other Cropping Systems
15.6 Sustainable Management of Poor-Quality Water
15.6.1 Management Options for Saline Water Use
15.6.2 Management Options for Sodic Water Use
15.7 Conclusions
References
16: Optical Sensors for Rational Fertilizer Nitrogen Management in Field Crops
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Optical Sensors for Precision N Management
16.2.1 Green Seeker Optical Sensor (N Tech Industries, Inc., USA)
16.2.2 Crop Circle (Holland Scientific Inc., Lincoln, NE)
16.2.3 Yara N-Sensor (Yara International ASA, Oslo, Norway)
16.2.4 CropScan Radiometer (CropScan, Inc. Rochester, MN)
16.2.5 Portable Spectroradiometers
16.2.6 Near-Infrared Analysis (NIR Systems, SliverSpring, MD)
16.3 Spectral Indices
16.4 Linking Optical Sensor Measurements, Plant N Concentration, Uptake and Crop Yield
16.4.1 Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
16.4.2 Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
16.4.3 Maize (Zea mays L.)
16.4.4 Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)
16.5 Using Optical Sensors for Making Precision N Management Decisions
16.5.1 Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
16.5.2 Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
16.5.3 Maize (Zea mays L.)
16.5.4 Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)
16.6 Future Research Needs and Limitations
16.7 Conclusions
References
17: Remote and Proximal Sensing for Optimising Input Use Efficiency for Sustainable Agriculture
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Remote Sensing, Sensors, and Resolution
17.2 Use of Remote and Proximal Sensing in Crop and Soil Management
17.3 Remote Sensing Based Methods of Phenology Detection
17.4 Variable Rate Application of Crop Inputs Using Remote Sensing, GIS, and GPS
17.4.1 Application of Fertilizers and Pesticides Using VRA
17.5 Estimation of Soil Properties Using Remote Sensing Techniques
17.6 Use of Multispectral Images to Estimate the Soil Properties
17.7 Use of Hyperspectral Data to Estimate Soil Properties
17.7.1 Soil Moisture
17.7.2 Detection of Abiotic and Biotic Stresses in Crops
17.7.3 Detection of Abiotic Stresses in Crops Using Remote and Proximal Sensing
17.7.4 Detection of Biotic Stresses in Crops
17.7.5 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Crop Production
17.8 Conclusions
References
18: Plans and Policies Towards the Input Use Efficiency for Food and Environmental Security
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Vision and Mission for Food and Environmental Security
18.2.1 Increasing Economic Growth
18.2.2 Achieving Gender Equality
18.2.3 Intensification of Agricultural Production
18.2.4 Development of Green Economy
18.2.5 Development of Resilient and Sustainable Food System
18.2.6 Popularization of Organic Agriculture
18.2.7 Using Water More Efficiently
18.2.8 Minimizing Yield Gap
18.3 Scenario of Input Use and Efficiency
18.3.1 Land
18.3.2 Water
18.3.3 Labour
18.3.4 Seed
18.3.5 Major Fertilizers
18.3.6 Pesticides
18.4 Plan and Policy for Food Security (National and International)
18.5 Food and Nutritional Security
18.5.1 Existing Trend in Food and Nutrition
18.5.2 Issues on Nutrition and Health
18.5.3 Constrains in Implementation
18.5.4 General Policy on Food and Nutritional Security
18.5.5 Climate Change and Food Security
18.6 Action Plan for the Environmental Security
18.7 New Approaches for Adoption
18.7.1 Natural Resources
18.7.2 Water as a Key Factor
18.7.3 Technology in Agriculture
18.7.3.1 Biotechnology
18.7.3.2 Quality Seeds
18.7.3.3 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
18.7.3.4 Conservation Technology for Natural Resource Management
18.8 Sustainable Strategies for Food and Environmental Security
18.9 Weakness of Plans and Policies for Food and Environmental Security
18.10 Epilogue
References
19: Precision Input Management for Minimizing and Recycling of Agricultural Waste
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Introduction to Agricultural Wastes
19.1.2 Brief Accounts into Waste Management
19.2 Category of Agricultural Waste
19.2.1 Waste Generation from Cultivation Activities
19.2.2 Generation of Waste Products from Livestock Production
19.2.3 Agricultural Residual Products
19.2.4 Waste from Aquaculture
19.2.5 Hazardous/Special Agricultural Waste
19.3 Consequence of Agricultural Waste on Food and Environmental Security
19.3.1 Consequences of Animal Waste Product
19.3.2 Consequences of Ecosystem on Food Waste Generation
19.3.3 Agricultural Wastes and its Consequences
19.3.4 Role of Rampant Application of Fertilizer Input
19.3.5 Food Waste and its Role in the Environment
19.3.6 Future Prospects of Agricultural Waste
19.4 Recycling Mechanism of Agricultural Waste
19.4.1 In Situ Management of Agricultural Waste
19.4.1.1 Incorporation of Crop Residue in Soil
19.4.1.2 Mulching
19.4.1.3 Compost Making
Preparation of Parthenium Compost
Procedure of Making Other Field-Side Compost
Improved Technologies for Vermicompost Production
Improved Production Technology for Farm Yard Manure (FYM)
19.4.2 Ex Situ Management of Agricultural Waste
19.4.2.1 Utilization of Agricultural Wastes as an Alternative Source of Energy
19.4.2.2 Gasification
19.4.2.3 Biochar Production
19.4.2.4 Production of Bio-Oils from Agricultural Wastes
19.4.2.5 Use of Crop Residues as Animal Feed
19.4.2.6 Use of Crop Residue as Bedding Material for Cattle and Roof Thatching
19.4.2.7 Crop Residue Usage for Cultivation of Mushroom
19.4.2.8 Use of Crop Residue in Fibre and Paper Production
19.4.2.9 Utilization of Wastes from Poultry Farm
19.5 Precision Input Management for Minimizing and Recycling of Agricultural Waste
19.5.1 Principle and Concept of Precision Techniques in Agriculture
19.5.2 Components of Precision Agriculture
19.5.2.1 Remote Sensing Technique
19.5.2.2 Geographic Information System (GIS)
19.5.2.3 Global Positioning System (GPS)
19.5.2.4 Variable Rate Techniques (VRT)
Components of VRT
Variable Rate Application (VRA) Methods
Map-Based VRA
Sensor-Based VRA
19.5.3 Applications in the Real World
19.6 Challenges for Minimizing and Recycling of Agricultural Waste
19.6.1 Poor Technologies of Converting Agricultural Residue into Biogas
19.6.2 Development of Building Blocks and other Items
19.6.3 Encouraging Agriculture Residue Business for Reuse as Raw Material
19.6.4 Consequences of Agricultural Residue Management Strategies
19.6.5 Knowledge and Awareness about Agricultural Residue Management
19.7 Summary and Conclusion
References
20: Recycling of Agro-Wastes for Environmental and Nutritional Security
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Environmental Impacts of Agro-Wastes
20.2.1 Nutrient Pollution
20.2.2 Climate Change
20.3 Air Pollution
20.4 Soil Pollution
20.5 Agricultural Wastes for Environmental Benefits
20.5.1 Source for Energy Production
20.5.1.1 Biofuel Production
20.5.1.2 How does Biomass Generate Energy?
20.5.2 Raw Materials for Industries
20.6 Agricultural Wastes for Nutritional Security
20.6.1 Impacts on Soil Quality
20.6.2 Source of Nutrients in Soil
20.6.3 Source of Improved Soil Carbon
20.6.4 Source of Increased Agricultural Production
20.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
21: Agricultural Waste Management Policies and Programme for Environment and Nutritional Security
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Agricultural Waste Generation and Environmental Impacts
21.2.1 Categorization of Agricultural Wastes
21.2.1.1 Agricultural Residues
21.2.1.2 Agro-Industrial Residues
21.2.1.3 Fruits and Vegetables
21.2.1.4 Livestock Wastes
21.2.2 Composition of Agricultural Wastes
21.2.3 Impact of Agriculture Wastes on the Quality of Air, Soil, Ground Water and Emission of Greenhouse Gases
21.3 Wastes Recycling and Utilization Options
21.3.1 Waste Management Concepts
21.3.2 Waste Management Systems
21.3.3 The ``3R´´ Approach in Agriculture Waste Management
21.3.4 Agriculture Waste Utilization Processes
21.3.4.1 Composting
21.3.4.2 Bio-Fuels Production
Anaerobic Decomposition (AD)
Bioethanol
Biohydrogen
21.3.4.3 Pyrolysis
21.3.4.4 Construction Materials
21.3.4.5 Dye Adsorption by Agricultural Waste Adsorbent
21.3.4.6 Production of Bioactive Compounds
21.4 Agricultural Wastes Use and its Benefits
21.4.1 Soil Quality Improvement
21.4.1.1 Effect on Soil Physicochemical Properties
21.4.1.2 Effect on Soil Biological Properties
21.4.2 Impacts of Agricultural Waste on Crop Productivity
21.4.3 Environmental Security
21.5 Policies and Programmes to Develop Agricultural Waste Management (AWM)
21.5.1 Central Schemes and Policies
21.5.2 Policy Proposals for the Improvement of Agricultural Waste Management
21.5.2.1 Legal Document and Management System.
21.5.2.2 Building Strategies and Development Plans
21.5.2.3 Infrastructure Investment
21.5.2.4 Development of Renewable Energy
21.6 Conclusion
21.7 Way Forward
References
22: Ethanol Production from Sugarcane: An Overview
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Sugarcane in the World: Significant Countries
22.3 Sugarcane Producing States of India
22.4 India´s Biofuel Policy and Ethanol Blending Program
22.5 India´s Ethanol Production, Supply, and Consumption
22.5.1 Bioethanol Production from Sugarcane Molasses
22.5.2 Bioethanol Production from Sugarcane Bagasse
22.5.2.1 General Mass Balance and Compositions of Sugarcane Bagasse
22.5.2.2 Pre-treatment of Sugarcane Bagasse
Physical Pretreatment Methods of Sugarcane Bagasse
Chemical Pretreatment Method of Sugarcane Bagasse
Combined Physical and Chemical Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse
Biological Pretreatment
22.5.2.3 Saccharification of Sugarcane Bagasse
22.5.2.4 Fermentation of Sugarcane Bagasse to Ethanol
22.6 Conclusion and Future Prospect
References
23: Emerging Policy Concerns for Improving Input Use Efficiency in Agriculture for Global Food Security in South Asia
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Dynamics of Agricultural Growth and Structural Changes in South Asian Region
23.3 Agricultural Trade in South Asian Region
23.4 Arable Land in South Asian Region
23.5 Land use pattern in South Asian Region
23.6 Cropping Pattern in South Asia Region
23.7 Employment and Labour Productivity in Agriculture sector in South Asian Region
23.8 Fertilizer Use in South Asian Region
23.9 Pesticide Use in South Asian Region
23.10 Percent Area Irrigated in South Asian Region
23.11 Area under HVCs in South Asian Region
23.12 Subsidies in Agriculture
23.13 Opportunities for Improved Livelihood in South Asian Region
23.14 Emerging Governmental Policies for Improved Livelihood and Assured Global Food Security in South Asian Region
References
24: Estimating the Input Use Efficiency of Rice Farmers in Bangladesh: An Application of the Primal System of Stochastic Front...
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Rice Production Efficiency in Bangladesh: A Review
24.3 Method to Estimate Input Use Efficiency of Rice Farmers in Bangladesh
24.4 Data and Descriptive Statistics
24.5 Input Use Inefficiencies in Rice Production in Bangladesh
24.6 Impact of Technical and Allocative Inefficiencies
24.7 Conclusions and Policy Implications
References