Infectious Tropical Diseases and One Health in Latin America

Contents
1: Yellow Fever
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Virus
1.3 Epidemiology
1.3.1 Origin of YFV
1.3.2 Cycles
1.3.3 Factors Associated with Disease Emergence
1.3.4 The Role of Climatic Changes
1.3.5 Cutting of Forest and Mining
1.3.6 Animal Traffic and Human Migration
1.3.7 Recent Epidemic Emergence in Africa and South America
1.3.8 Pathogenesis
1.4 Clinical Presentation
1.4.1 Degrees of Yellow Fever Severity
1.5 Diagnosis
1.6 Treatment
1.7 Control and Prevent Measures
References
2: Chikungunya
2.1 An Overview
2.2 Chikungunya: A Global Public Health Concern
2.3 The Biology of the Chikungunya Virus
2.4 The Immunopathogenesis of Chikungunya
2.5 Global Genetic Diversity of Chikungunya Virus
2.6 Approach to Chikungunya Diagnosis in the Context of Other Acute Febrile Illnesses Prevalent in Latin America
2.7 Global Availability of Chikungunya RDTs
2.8 Clinical Manifestations: Neonates, Children, and Adults
2.8.1 Chikungunya Clinical Presentation in Children Versus Adults
2.9 Treatment: Acute Phase, Post-Acute, and Chronic Arthritis
2.9.1 Acute Phase
2.9.2 Post-Acute and Chronic Arthritis
2.10 Prevention and Control
2.10.1 Vaccine Development
2.10.2 Mosquito Protection
2.11 Summary and Take-Home Messages
References
3: Zika Virosis: A Known, But Long Time Underestimated Disease That Got New and High Attention Before, During, and After the O...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Zika Virus
3.3 Transmission of the Zika Virus
3.4 Clinical Symptoms
3.5 Prevention
Bibliography
4: Important Infectious Diseases in Latin America and the Caribbean: Plague
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Plague: One of the Oldest and Most Feared Diseases of Mankind
4.2.1 A Forgotten Zoonosis with a Potential for Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC)
4.2.2 Yersinia pestis, the Plague Bacillus
4.2.3 Transmission of Plague
4.2.4 Animal Hosts of Plague
4.2.5 Insect Vectors of Yersinia pestis
4.2.6 Clinical Features
4.2.7 Laboratorial Diagnosis of Plague
4.2.7.1 Serology
4.2.7.2 Bacteriology
4.2.7.3 Molecular Biology
4.2.8 Treatment
4.2.9 Plague as an Occupational Disease
4.2.10 Prevention
4.2.10.1 Measures Taken During the Twentieth Century Epidemics in South America
4.2.10.2 Prevention Nowadays
4.3 Introduction of Plague Into Latin America and the Caribbean
4.3.1 Establishment of Plague Foci in South America.
4.3.2 Plague on the Atlantic Coast of South America
4.3.2.1 Brazil
4.3.3 Plague on the Pacific coast of South America
4.3.3.1 Peru
4.3.3.2 Ecuador
4.3.3.3 Bolivia
4.3.4 Important Considerations of Plague in Latin America
4.4 Final Remarks
References
5: Trypanosoma Cruzi: An Ancient and Successful Enzootic Parasite
5.1 Parasites: General Aspects
5.1.1 Origin of Parasitism
5.1.2 The Euglenozoa
5.1.3 The Kinetoplastea
5.1.4 The Trypanosomatidae
5.2 Trypanosoma Cruzi
5.2.1 Intergovernmental Efforts to Interrupt the Trypanosoma cruzi Transmission by Triatoma infestans
5.2.2 Chagas Disease After T. Infestans Control: Distinct Scenarios of Transmission and the Consequent Disease Outbreaks
5.2.3 The Niche Modeling as a Promising Method to Forecast Trypanosoma Cruzi High Transmission Areas
5.2.3.1 Modeling Didelphis Aurita and Its Trypanosoma Cruzi Infection: Navegates-Santa Catarina, Brazil
5.2.3.2 Modeling Didelphis Aurita and Its Trypanosoma Cruzi Infection: Guarapari-Espírito Santo, Brazil
References
6: The Social and Environmental Determinants of the Leishmaniases in the Americas
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Leishmaniases
6.3 The Vectors of Leishmaniasis
6.4 Eco-Epidemiology and Vectors
6.4.1 American Cutaneous Leishmaniasis
6.4.2 American Visceral Leishmaniasis
6.5 The Challenges to the Control of American Visceral Leishmaniasis in Urban Areas
6.6 Remote Sensing as a Tool for Exploring the Role of Environment in the Spread of Visceral Leishmaniasis
6.7 Closing Remarks
References
7: Toxoplasmosis in South America
7.1 Name
7.2 Geographic Distribution and Transmission of Toxoplasma gondii
7.3 Biology, Morphology
7.3.1 Pathway of Human Infections
7.4 Symptoms of Disease (Toxoplasmosis)
7.4.1 Cats and Related Species
7.4.2 Human Infections
7.4.2.1 Acquired Postnatal Toxoplasmosis
7.4.2.2 Congenital Toxoplasmosis
7.4.2.3 Ocular Toxoplasmosis (OT)
7.4.2.4 Toxoplasmosis Due to Blood Transfusions
7.5 Prophylaxis
7.6 Incubation Period
7.7 Prepatent Period
7.8 Patency
7.9 Diagnosis of Human Infections
7.10 Determination of a First Infection of a Pregnant Woman
7.11 Therapy
7.11.1 Congenital Toxoplasmosis
7.11.2 Postnatal Toxoplasmosis in the Case of Immunocompetent Persons
7.11.3 Length of Treatment
7.11.4 Progress of Control
7.11.5 Toxoplasmosis During Pregnancy
7.11.6 Toxoplasmosis in the Case of Immunocompromised Persons
7.12 Toxoplasma Infections of Animals Which Are Potential Vectors for Human Infections
7.12.1 Final Hosts Cats
7.12.2 Intermediate Hosts
7.12.3 Pathway of Infection of Cats
7.12.4 Prophylaxis
7.12.5 Incubation Period
7.12.6 Prepatent Period
7.12.7 Patency
7.12.8 Therapy
7.13 Importance ofHuman Toxoplasmosis in South America
References and Further Reading
8: Tunga Spp. and Tungiasis in Latin America
8.1 Tunga Spp.
8.1.1 Tunga penetrans
8.1.2 Tunga trimamillata
8.1.3 Tunga terasma
8.1.4 Tunga travassosi
8.1.5 Tunga bondari
8.1.6 Tunga perforans
8.1.7 Tunga hexalobulata
8.2 Tungiasis in Domestic Animals
8.3 Tungiasis in Humans
8.4 Control of Tungiasis Considering One Health
References
9: Human Myiasis on the South American Continent
9.1 Definition of Myiasis
9.2 Main Types of Myiasis According to Hall and Smith (1995)
9.2.1 Cutaneous Myiasis
9.2.1.1 Wound and Traumatic Myiasis
9.2.1.2 Bloodsucking (Sanguinivorous) Myiasis
9.2.1.3 Furuncular Myiasis
9.2.1.4 Creeping Myiasis
9.2.2 Body Cavity Myiasis
9.2.3 Accidental Myiasis
9.2.3.1 Intestinal (Enteric, Rectal) Myiasis
9.2.3.2 Urogenital Myiasis
9.3 Biology
9.4 Important Species in South America
9.4.1 Dermatobia hominis
9.4.2 Cuterebra Sp.
9.4.3 Oestrus Ovis (Nose Bot Flies)
9.4.4 Cochliomyia Hominivorax
9.4.5 Cochliomyia Macellaria
9.4.6 Chrysomya Species
9.4.7 Lucilia Eximia
9.4.8 Wohlfartia Species
9.4.9 Cordylobia anthropophaga
9.4.10 Sarcophaga haemorrhoidales (Syn S. cruentata)
9.5 Treatment of Human Myiasis
9.5.1 Mechanical Removal
9.5.2 Chemical Control Measurements
9.5.3 Sterile Male Insect Technique
9.5.4 Use of Living Larvae to Clean Infected Wounds
9.5.5 Larveel-A Powder Obtained from Fly Maggots to Heal Non-healing Wounds
9.5.6 Manual Removal of Fly Larvae from Skin
9.5.7 Prevention
9.5.8 Chemical Elimination
References
Further Reading
10: Schistosomiasis Control: Present Situation and Perspectives
10.1 Parasite, Infection, and Disease
10.2 One Health Approach: Zoonotic Schistosomiasis
10.3 Brief Story and Occurrence of Schistosomiasis in the Americas
10.4 Guidelines, Control Efforts in the World and in the Americas
10.5 Morbidity and Mortality Trends
10.6 Control Situation: Reducing Intensity and Prevalence Towards Elimination as a Public Health Problem
10.7 Control Situation in Brazil: Snails and Environmental Interventions Including Sanitation and Water
10.8 Strategies of Health Education and Insertion in Basic Care, Integration with Control of Other Infectious Diseases of Pove...
10.9 Development and Evaluation of Diagnostic Methods
10.10 Development in Treatment, Pediatric Formulation of Praziquantel
10.11 Perspectives and Concluding Remarks
References
11: Hookworms in South America: A Constant Threat Especially to Children
11.1 Topics
11.2 Phases of Disease
References
Further Reading
12: One Health Approach to Control Human and Zoonotic Hookworm Infections
12.1 Human Hookworm Infection and Cutaneous Larva Migrans
12.2 Hookworm Control and One Health
References