Infectious Disease Ecology and Conservation

cover
titlepage
copyright
Contents
Acknowledgments
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Glossary
Introduction
Intended audience
Background and focal systems
Book structure
Part I Epidemiological Background
1 Conservation Biology and Parasitism
1.1 What is conservation biology?
1.2 Biodiversity
1.3 Extinction
1.4 Drivers of extinction
1.4.1 The role of parasites and pathogens in extinction
1.4.2 Possible mechanisms of parasite-induced extinction/endangerment
1.4.3 Detecting infectious disease threats to populations or communities
1.5 Endangerment and conservation of parasites
1.5.1 Are parasites threatened?
1.5.2 Why conserve parasites—Ethical reasons
1.5.3 Why conserve parasites—Applied reasons
1.5.4 How do parasites become endangered?
1.5.5 What are the effects of conservation management activities on parasite communities?
1.5.6 Which parasite species are most likely to become endangered?
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Disease Epidemiology in Natural Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Transmission and parasite life cycles
2.2.1 Transmission in single host–single parasite infections
2.2.2 Transmission in multiple host species–single parasite infection
2.2.3 The basic reproductive number R0
2.2.4 Natural selection and host–parasite interactions
2.3 Factors determining outcome of infection
2.3.1 Host effects
2.3.2 Pathogen effects
2.3.3 Environmental effects
References
3 Anthropogenic Effects and Wildlife Diseases
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Human introduction of pathogens or hosts
3.2.1 Introduction of a novel disease agent into a naive population
3.2.2 Introduction of naive hosts to an area where an indigenous pathogen exists
3.2.3 Introduction of a host that alters the ecology of an indigenous disease
3.3 Interactions between habitat degradation/loss and infectious disease
3.3.1 Parasites/pathogens modifying habitat suitability
3.3.2 Effects of habitat degradation/fragmentation on parasites and pathogens
3.3.3 Conclusion
3.4 Parasitism and predation
3.4.1 Trophic transmission
3.4.2 Effects of predators on herd health
3.4.3 Combined effects of predation and parasitism on host population size and stability
3.5 Climate change and wildlife disease
3.5.1 Climate change and vector-borne diseases
References
Part II Acquisition of Field Data
4 Sampling, Experimental Design, and Statistical Analysis
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The three Rs of sampling and study design: Representativeness, replication, and randomness
4.2.1 Representativeness
4.2.2 Replication
4.2.3 Randomness
4.3 Statistical tools
4.3.1 Likelihood
4.3.2 The Akaike information criterion
4.4 Hypothesis testing
4.5 Power analysis
References
5 Capture, Restraint, and Euthanasia of Target Species
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Are captured animals representative of the population?
5.3 Are biological samples collected from study animals representative of the normal physiological state and not unduly influenced by the capture procedure?
5.4 Will capture affect the study animal's subsequent behavior, activity, or survival?
5.5 Are sampling frequency and intensity sufficient to accurately represent host population demographics and the dynamics of the disease?
5.6 Will the capture technique endanger the investigator?
5.7 How can the capturing/sampling process be improved?
5.8 Euthanasia (humane killing)
5.9 Capture considerations for various categories of vertebrate hosts
5.9.1 Amphibians
5.9.2 Reptiles
5.9.3 Birds
5.9.4 Mammals
References
6 Disease and Agent Detection
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Detecting infectious agents in individuals
6.3 Detecting infectious agents at the population level
6.4 Detecting disease at the individual or population level
6.5 Confirming a cause–effect relationship between infection and disease
6.5.1 Basic principles and methodological challenges
6.5.2 Experimental studies
6.5.3 Observational studies
References
7 The Environmental Context of Wildlife Disease
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Identifying and quantifying the association between environmental features and disease occurrence
7.2.1 The importance of scale
7.3 Modeling the environmental occurrence of disease
7.3.1 Using features of the ecological niche to predict where or when disease will occur
7.3.2 Using knowledge of the ecological niche in disease management
7.4 Conclusions and summary
References
8 Agent and Disease Detection—Laboratory Methods
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sampling—Preanalysis
8.3 Sampling—Analysis
8.4 Sampling—Postanalysis
References
Part III Modeling and Data Analysis
9 Disease Modeling
9.1 Why use a model?
9.2 Types of models
9.2.1 Strategic versus tactical models
9.2.2 Deterministic versus stochastic models
9.2.3 Microparasite versus macroparasite models
9.3 Microparasite models
9.3.1 Incorporating age structure and time delays
9.4 Macroparasite models
9.5 Integral projection models
9.6 The basic reproductive number R0
9.6.1 R0 for complex life cycles and multiple hosts
9.6.2 R0 for network models
9.7 Adding pathogens to population viability analysis models
9.8 Individual-based models
9.9 Models for spatial spread
References
10 Estimating Basic Epidemiological Parameters
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Estimating host population size and infection status
10.3 Mortality and fecundity: Basic demographic parameters
10.3.1 Estimating pathogen- or parasite-induced mortality
10.3.2 Survival analysis
10.4 Mark–recapture methods
10.5 Quantifying transmission
10.5.1 What does one need to estimate and why?
10.5.2 Estimating contact rates
10.5.3 Estimating the force of infection
10.5.4 Multistate mark–recapture methods
10.5.5 Applying multistate mark–recapture to Tasmanian devils and facial tumor disease
10.6 Estimating R0
10.6.1 Direct estimation of R0 for emerging diseases
10.6.2 Estimation of R0 for infections at equilibrium
10.6.3 Estimating R0 in multiple host systems
10.7 Estimating the parameters for spatial spread
10.8 Bayesian approaches
References
Part IV Managing Wildlife Disease
11 Disease Management: Introduction and Planning
11.1 Identifying the problem: Known knowns
11.2 Known unknowns
11.3 Unknown unknowns
11.4 Steps in managing threats to wildlife from infectious disease
11.5 Management plans
11.5.1 Elements of a management plan
11.5.2 Existing management plans for wildlife diseases: The example of Australia
References
12 Preventing New Disease Occurrences
12.1 Background and definitions
12.1.1 Anticipatory planning
12.1.2 Ecological and evolutionary considerations
12.2 Introduction of pathogens into susceptible systems: Prevention and management
12.2.1 Preventing disease introduction after accidental movement of hosts
12.2.2 Preventing disease introduction during intentional host movement: Wildlife translocations and reintroductions
12.2.3 Preventative protection of individual hosts
12.3 Introduction of susceptible hosts to a disease nidus: Realities and prevention
12.4 Preventing environmental changes that allow a disease to establish or increase in prevalence
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Disease Elimination and Eradication
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Preintervention considerations
13.3 Manipulating the causative agent
13.4 Manipulating the host(s)
13.5 Vaccination
13.6 Manipulating environmental factors
13.7 Combined techniques
13.8 The endgame
13.9 Establishing an ``ark'' or ``insurance'' population
References
14 Disease Control: How to Live with Infection
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Reducing prevalence or intensity of infection
14.2.1 Culling
14.2.2 Chemotherapy.
14.2.3 Managing species other than the focal host
14.3 Increasing resistance or tolerance
14.3.1 Food supplementation.
14.3.2 Vaccination.
14.3.3 Probiotics and related approaches.
14.3.4 Genetic management.
14.4 Increasing tolerance of infection at a population level
References
15 Infectious Diseases as Biological Control Agents
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Myxomatosis as a biological control for rabbit populations
15.3 Rabbit hemorrhagic disease to control rabbit populations
15.3.1 Rabbit biocontrol—Ecological consequences
15.4 Feline panleukopenia virus against cats
15.5 Herpesvirus as a control agent for European carp
15.6 Potential biological control of cane toads
15.7 Virally vectored immunocontraception
15.8 Synthesis and conclusions
15.8.1 Logistics of biocontrol
15.8.2 Required prerelease knowledge
15.8.3 Postrelease activities
References
16 Ethical and Public Outreach Considerations
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Ethics in wildlife disease management
16.2.1 Conservation
16.2.2 Preservationism
16.2.3 A special case: Global eradication of pathogens or parasites
16.2.4 Implications for wildlife disease management
16.2.5 Ethics of wildlife disease management: Some practical suggestions
16.3 Wildlife disease management and public outreach
16.3.1 Communicating information about wildlife-associated disease: Interacting with the community
16.3.2 Stakeholder engagement methods
References
Index