In Situ Bioavailability and Toxicity of Organic Chemicals in Aquatic Systems

Preface
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Chemical Analytical and Bioanalytical Techniques in Bioavailability Research: Passive Sampling/Dosing and Bioaccumulat...
Equilibrium Sampling of Hydrophobic Organic Contaminants in Sediments
1 Introduction
2 Ex Situ Versus In Situ Equilibrium Sampling
2.1 Ex Situ Sampling
2.2 In Situ Sampling
3 In the Field
3.1 Selection of Sampling Sites
3.2 Sediment Sampling
4 Silicone-Coated Glass Jars
4.1 Chemicals and Materials
4.2 Producing Silicone-Coated Jars
4.2.1 Preparation of Glass Jars
4.2.2 Calculating Required Silicone Mass
4.2.3 Coating Glass Jars
4.3 Equilibrium Sampling
4.4 Extraction and Cleanup
5 SPME Fibers
5.1 Chemicals and Materials
5.2 Preparation of SPME Fibers
5.3 Ex Situ Equilibrium Sampling
5.4 In Situ Equilibrium Sampling
5.5 Extraction of SPME Fibers
6 Instrumental Analysis
6.1 Analysis of Equilibrium Sampler Extracts
6.2 SPME Fiber Analysis by Thermal Desorption
7 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
7.1 General Remarks
7.2 Validation of Equilibrium and Non-depletive Sampling
7.3 Method Detection and Quantification Limits
8 Calculation of Endpoints
8.1 Cfree and Chemical Activity
8.2 Site-Specific Distribution Ratios (KD)
8.3 Equilibrium Partitioning Concentrations in Lipid (clip sed)
9 Notes
10 Conclusions
References
Passive Sampling of Waterborne Contaminants
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
2 Principles of Passive Sampling
2.1 Equilibrium Partitioning and the Chemical Activity Concept
2.2 Theory of Partitioning Passive Sampling
2.3 Partitioning PSD
2.4 Adsorption PSD
3 Partitioning PSD
3.1 Sampler Preparation
3.1.1 Spiking Samplers with PRC
3.1.2 Sampler Storage
3.2 Sampling Site Selection and Field Deployment
3.3 Laboratory Processing
3.3.1 Soxhlet Extraction
3.3.2 Cold Extraction
3.3.3 Thermal Desorption
3.3.4 Volume Reduction and Solvent Exchange of Extracts
3.3.5 Sample Clean-Up and Instrumental Analysis
3.3.6 Sample Processing for Toxicological Analysis
3.4 Calculations
3.4.1 Sampler-Water Partition Coefficients
3.4.2 Estimation of the Sampling Rate and Aqueous Concentration
4 Adsorption PS Devices
4.1 Availability and Preparation
4.2 Sampling Site Selection and Field Deployment
4.3 Laboratory Analysis and Calculations
4.3.1 In Situ Calibration
4.3.2 Estimate of In Situ Sampling Rates Using Co-deployed Partition-Based Samplers with PRC
4.3.3 Evaluating Toxicological Data
5 Site Considerations
6 Field Deployment
6.1 Stationary Deployment
6.2 Dynamic and Mobile Deployments
6.3 Deployment, Retrieval and Transport
7 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
7.1 Handling of Samples
7.2 QA/QC for Toxicological Analysis
7.3 Proficiency Testing Schemes
8 Reporting
9 Conclusion
10 Notes
References
Using Tenax Extractable Concentrations to Determine the Bioavailable Contaminant Fraction in Sediments
1 Introduction
2 Experimental Methodology
2.1 Preparing the Tenax
2.2 Preparing Tenax Packets
2.3 Determining the Tenax and Sediment Mass
2.4 Tenax Extractions
2.5 Sequential Tenax Extractions
3 Calculations and Using Tenax Extractable Concentrations
3.1 Organic Carbon Normalization
3.2 Calculating Frap
3.3 Single-Point Tenax Extractions
3.4 Comparing Tenax Extractable Concentrations to Bioaccumulation
3.5 Comparing Tenax Extractable Concentrations to Toxicity
4 Factors Decreasing the Effectivity of the Tenax Method
5 Application of Tenax Extractable Concentrations to Sediment Assessments
5.1 Bioavailability Estimates and Comparisons of Study Sites
6 Future Directions
6.1 Octanol to Water Partition Coefficients
6.2 Organic Carbon Composition and Desorption
6.3 Estimating Exposure in Higher Trophic Level Organisms
7 Conclusions
References
Quantifying Bioaccumulation in the Aquatic Environment
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 General Considerations
2.2 Bioconcentration Factor (BCF)
2.3 Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF)
2.4 Biota-Sediment Accumulation Factors (BSAF)
2.5 Biomagnification Factors (BMF)
2.5.1 Assessing the Diet or Trophic Level
2.6 Trophic Magnification Factors (TMF)
3 Notes and General Considerations
3.1 Use and Interpretation
3.1.1 Use of B-Metrics in Regulations and Conventions
3.1.2 Steady State and Representativeness
3.1.3 Contamination
3.1.4 Translation Across B-Metrics
3.1.5 Benchmarking and Read-Across
3.2 Bioaccumulation Factors
3.3 Biomagnification Factors
3.3.1 Properties Beyond Diet Affect the δ15N
3.4 Trophic Magnification Factors
3.5 Improving the Trophic Positions Assessment
References
Part II: Monitoring of Effects In Situ and Bioassays to Assess the Effects of Complex Environmental Samples
In Situ Determination of Genotoxic Effects in Fish Erythrocytes Using Comet and Micronucleus Assays
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Micronucleus Assay
2.2 Comet Assay
3 Methods
3.1 Fish Sampling
3.2 Fish Blood Collection
3.3 Micronucleus Assay
3.4 Comet Assay
4 Notes
References
Assessing Adverse Effects of Legacy and Emerging Contaminants in Fish Using Biomarker Analysis and Histopathology in Active Mo
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
2 The Active Monitoring Strategy with Fish
3 The Biomarker and Histopathology Approach
3.1 Rationale for the Selection of a Biomarker Battery
3.1.1 General Fish Condition
3.1.2 Histopathology
3.1.3 General Stress: Lysosomal Responses
3.1.4 Core Exposure and Effect Biomarkers
3.1.5 Additional Biomarkers
3.1.6 Biomarker Integration Indices
3.2 Tissue Sampling and Biomarker Measurement
3.2.1 Sampling
3.2.2 Biometry
3.2.3 Blood and Plasma Samples
3.2.4 Histopathological Analysis
3.2.5 Lysosomal Membrane Stability (LMS)
3.2.6 Biochemical Analysis
3.2.7 Bile Metabolites
3.2.8 Analysis of Gene Transcription Levels
4 Notes
References
In Situ Exposure of Aquatic Invertebrates to Detect the Effects of Point and Nonpoint Source-Related Chemical Pollution in Aqu
1 Introduction
2 General Considerations
2.1 Exposure System/Cages
2.2 Test Organisms
2.3 Additional Measurements
2.4 Site Selection
2.5 Response Variables
2.6 Data Evaluation and Interpretation
3 Impact of Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents: A Case Study Focusing on Point Sources
3.1 Background
3.2 Cages
3.3 Leaf Preparation
3.4 Test Organisms
3.5 Deployment
3.6 Calculations and Statistics
3.7 Results and Discussion
4 Final Remarks
References
Whole-Sediment Toxicity Bioassay to Determine Bioavailability and Effects of Aquatic Contaminants Using Zebrafish Embryos
1 Introduction
1.1 Sediments in Aquatic Environments
1.2 Usage of Zebrafish Embryos for Assessment of Teratogenic, Embryotoxic, and Neurotoxic Potential of Sediments
1.3 Monitoring the Effects of Contaminants
1.3.1 Detoxification Potential of Organisms and Biotransformation Enzymes
1.3.2 Role of Oxidative Stress in the Toxicity Elicited by Environmental Contaminants
1.3.3 Neurotoxic Actions
1.4 Measurement of Organism Responses on Enzymatic and Gene Expression Level
2 Materials
2.1 Devices
2.2 Laboratory Glassware and Consumables
2.3 Kits
2.4 Chemicals and Solutions
3 Methods
3.1 Sample Processing
3.2 Whole-Sediment Toxicity Test with Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryos
3.3 Biomarker Assays
3.3.1 Exposure and Sample Preparation
EROD Buffer Preparation
Ethyl-p-Amino Benzoate Saturated Solution Preparation
3.3.2 Fish Embryo 7-Ethoxyresorufin-O-Deethylase (FE-EROD) Assay
Preparation of Solutions
Procedure
3.3.3 Fish Embryo Carboxylesterase (FE-CES) Assay
Procedure
p-Nitrophenyl Acetate (1 mM) Preparation
3.3.4 Fish Embryo Glutathione S-Transferase (FE-GST) Assay
Procedure
CDNB (1 mM) Preparation
GSH (25 mM) Preparation
3.3.5 Fish Embryo Catalase (FE-CAT) Assay
Procedure
Hydrogen Peroxide (0.02 M) Preparation
3.3.6 Fish Embryo Acetylcholinesterase (FE-AChE) Assay
Procedure
DTNB (1.6 mM) Preparation
Acetylthiocholine Iodide (156 mM) Preparation
3.4 Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qPCR)
3.4.1 Exposure and Sample Preparation
3.4.2 Gene Expression Analysis
4 Notes
References
Nematode-Based Effect Assessment in Freshwater Sediments
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Assessment of In Situ Nematodes
2.1.1 Sediment Sampling and Handling
2.1.2 Nematode Extraction and Preparation
2.1.3 Nematode Analysis, Classification, and NemaSPEAR
2.2 Whole-Sediment Toxicity Test (Sediment Contact Test)
2.2.1 Preparation of Stock Culture of Food Organism (Escherichia coli OP50)
2.2.2 Preparation of Food Medium for Test
2.2.3 Culture of Test Organism (Caenorhabditis elegans N2)
2.2.4 Preparation of Control and Tested Sediment
2.2.5 Test Performance and Analysis
3 Remarks
References
Part III: Computational Models for Interspecies Comparison and Extrapolation From the Lab to the Field
In Vitro-In Vivo Extrapolation to Predict Bioaccumulation and Toxicity of Chemicals in Fish Using Physiologically Based Toxico
1 Introduction
2 Aim
3 The PBTK Model for Predicting Chemical Concentrations in Fish
3.1 PBTK Model Implementation
3.2 PBTK Model Abbreviations and Symbols
3.3 Remarks to PBTK Model Inputs
3.4 PBTK Model Parameters
3.5 PBTK Model Equations
3.6 Biotransformation Data Used in the PBTK Model
3.7 Dietary Uptake and Elimination Routes in the PBTK Model
4 Predicting Fish Acute Toxicity (LC50) Based on the PBTK Model and In Vitro Data
4.1 Cytotoxicity Assay
4.2 Translation of EC50 Measured for a Gill Cell Line to LC50 for Fish
5 Predicting Chemical Biotransformation and Bioconcentration (BCF) in Fish
5.1 General Approach
5.2 Chemical Starting Concentration in the Biotransformation Assay
5.3 Biotransformation in Organs Other than the Liver
5.4 Biotransformation in Fish Cell Lines
6 Predicting Chemical Impact on Fish Growth by Using the PBTK Model and In Vitro Data
6.1 Uptake Assay with the RTgill-W1 Cell
6.2 Cell Population Growth Assay
6.3 The von Bertalanffy Growth Model
7 Concluding Remarks on the Described PBTK Models
References
Cross-Species Extrapolation Using a Simplified In Vitro Tissue Explant Assay in Fish
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Tissue Explant Exposure
2.1.1 Preparation of Media
2.1.2 Extraction of Tissues
2.1.3 Exposure of Tissue Explants
2.1.4 Exposure Termination and Sample Storage
2.2 Quality Control Exposure
2.2.1 Exposure Setup
2.2.2 Exposure Termination and Sample Storage
2.3 Tissue Viability Measurement Using the LDH Cytotoxicity Assay
2.3.1 Reagent Preparation
3 Methods
3.1 Tissue Explant Exposure
3.1.1 Preparation of Media
3.1.2 Extraction of Tissues
3.1.3 Exposure of Tissue Explants
3.1.4 Exposure Termination and Sample Storage
3.2 Quality Control Exposure
3.2.1 Exposure Setup
3.2.2 Exposure Termination and Sample Storage
3.3 Tissue Viability Measurement Using the LDH Cytotoxicity Assay
3.3.1 Reagent Preparation
3.3.2 Cytotoxicity Assay Procedure
4 Further Analyses
5 Notes
6 Troubleshooting
References
Extrapolation of Laboratory-Measured Effects to Fish Populations in the Field
1 Introduction to Population Modelling
2 Methods
2.1 Define the Purpose of the Model
2.2 Conceptualize the Model
2.3 Formalize the Model
2.4 Implement the Model
2.5 Verify the Model
2.6 Calibrate the Model
2.7 Analyze the Model
2.8 Communicate the Model
3 Conclusions and Future Outlook for Population Modelling
4 Notes
References
Index