Immunity Boosting Medicinal Plants of the Western Himalayas

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction to Plants of Western Himalayas
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Materials and Methods
1.3 Medicinal Plants
1.3.1 Aconitum heterophyllum
1.3.2 Artemisia annua L.
1.3.3 Bergenia ciliate
1.3.4 Cinnamomum tamala
1.3.5 Tinospora Cordifolia
1.3.6 Juglans regia
1.3.7 Matricaria chamomilla Linn
1.3.8 Nasturtium officinale
1.3.9 Viscum album L.
1.3.10 Withania somnifera
1.3.11 Andrographis paniculata
1.3.12 Aloe vera
1.3.13 Camellia sinensis
1.3.14 Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
1.4 Formulations
1.5 Conservation/Sustainability
1.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Achillea millefolium L., Common Yarrow
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Taxonomy
2.3 Common Names of Achillea millefolium
2.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
2.5 Distribution
2.6 Morphology
2.7 Traditional Uses
2.8 Phytochemistry
2.9 Nutritional Composition
2.10 Clinical Studies
2.11 Toxicology
2.12 Pharmacology
2.13 Cultivation, Harvesting, and Processing
2.14 Formulations and Market Product
2.15 Tissue Culture
2.16 Conservation
2.17 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 3: Arisaema Jacquemontii Blume, Jacquemont´s Cobra Lily
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Taxonomy and Common Names
3.3 Distribution
3.4 Morphology
3.5 Flowering and Fruiting Season
3.6 Cultivation Practices
3.7 Conservation
3.8 Phytochemistry
3.9 Traditional Uses
3.10 Pharmacology
3.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Species of Arnebia Genus Found in the Western Himalayas: Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.), Arnebia benthamii (Wal...
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Taxonomical Classification, Distribution, and Morphology
4.2.1 Arnebia benthamii (Wall. Ex G. Don)
4.2.2 Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth)
4.2.3 Arnebia guttata Bunge
4.3 Ethnobotany and Traditional Uses of Arnebia Spp.
4.3.1 Arnebia in Persian Medicine
4.4 Phytochemistry
4.4.1 A. benthamii
4.4.2 A. guttata
4.4.3 A. euchroma
4.5 Pharmacological Activities
4.5.1 Antioxidant Activity
4.5.2 Antidepressant Activity
4.5.3 Anticancer Effects
4.5.4 Anti-inflammatory Effects
4.5.5 Anti-genotoxic and Anti-Photogenotoxic Activities
4.5.6 Antidiabetic Activity
4.5.7 Wound Infection and Healing
4.5.8 Leukaemia Treatment
4.5.9 Anti-obesity Properties
4.5.10 Antimicrobial Activity
4.5.11 Hepatotoxic Activity
4.5.12 Cytotoxic Activity
4.6 Agrotechnology
4.6.1 Propagule Collection, Enhanced Rooting, and Seedling Survival
4.6.2 In Vitro Seed Germination
4.6.3 Tissue Culture
4.6.4 In Vitro Multiplication
4.6.5 Metabolic Engineering
4.7 Conservation
4.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 5: Species of the Berberis Genus Found in the Western Himalayas
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Taxonomy
5.3 Common Name
5.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
5.5 Distribution
5.6 Morphology
5.7 Traditional Uses
5.8 Phytochemistry
5.9 Nutritional Composition
5.10 Pharmacology
5.10.1 Pharmacological Activities of B. aristata
5.10.1.1 Anticancer
5.10.1.2 Antioxidant
5.10.1.3 Antimicrobial Activity
5.10.1.4 Hepatoprotective Activity
5.10.1.5 Cardioprotective Effect
5.10.1.6 Anti-inflammatory
5.10.1.7 Anti-diarrheal Activity
5.10.1.8 Antidiabetic Activity
5.10.1.9 Ophthalmic
5.10.2 Pharmacological Activities of B. lycium
5.10.2.1 Antidiabetic Property
5.10.2.2 Antimicrobial Property
5.10.2.3 Hepatoprotective Property
5.10.2.4 Antihyperlipidemic Property
5.10.2.5 Pesticidal Property
5.10.2.6 Wound Healing Property
5.10.2.7 Antioxidant Property
5.10.2.8 Antihyperglycemic Activity
5.10.2.9 Anticancer and Antitumor Activity
5.10.2.10 Antimicrobial Activity
5.10.2.11 Anticoccidial Activity
5.10.2.12 Immunity Enhancer
5.10.2.13 Antiurolithic Activity
5.10.2.14 Anthelmintic Activity
5.10.2.15 Hepatoprotective Activity
5.10.2.16 Antiprotozoal Activity
5.10.2.17 Antibacterial Activity
5.10.2.18 Cardiac Diseases
5.10.2.19 Analgesic Activity
5.11 Synthetic Strategies for Key Secondary Metabolites
5.12 Cultivation/Harvesting
5.13 Patent
5.14 Formulations and Market Product
5.15 Conservation
5.16 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Dactylorhiza Hatagirea (D.Don) Soo: Himalayan Marsh Orchid
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Botanical Description and Taxonomical Classification
6.3 Distribution: India and World
6.3.1 Population Density
6.4 Phytochemical Composition
6.5 Ethnomedicinal Uses
6.6 Pharmacological Importance
6.6.1 Anti-microbial Activity
6.6.2 Antioxidant Activity
6.6.3 Aphrodisiac Activity
6.6.4 Anti-cancerous Activity
6.6.5 Anti-diabetic Activity
6.6.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity
6.6.7 Antipyretic Activity
6.6.8 Neuropharmacological Activity
6.6.9 Other Applications
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Fritillaria Roylei Hook.f.: Himalayan Fritillary
7.1 Background
7.2 Botanic Classification and Distribution
7.3 Morphology
7.4 Phytochemistry
7.5 Medicinal Properties
7.6 Pharmacological Activities
7.7 Conservation Strategies
7.8 Analytical Techniques Used for Chemical Evaluation
7.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 8: Gentiana kurroo Royle: Himalayan Gentian
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Traditional Uses
8.3 Botanical Classification
8.4 Geographical Distribution
8.5 Morphology and Lifespan of Gentiana Kurroo
8.6 Phytochemistry
8.7 Pharmacology
8.7.1 Antibacterial Activity
8.7.2 Antioxidant Activity
8.7.3 Analgesic Activity
8.7.4 Immunomodulation Potential
8.7.5 Anti-Diabetic Activity
8.7.6 Antileishmanial Activity
8.7.7 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
8.7.8 Antiproliferative Activity
8.8 Green Synthesis of Nanoparticle
8.9 Toxicology
8.10 Agrotechnology
8.11 Formulation and Ayurvedic Medicines
8.12 Conservation
8.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Habenaria Intermedia D. Don and Habenaria Edgeworthii Hook., f. ex Collett.: The Western Himalayan Medicinal Plants
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Taxonomy
9.3 Flowering/Fruiting Season
9.4 Distribution
9.5 Morphology
9.6 Traditional Uses
9.7 Phytochemistry
9.8 Nutritional Composition
9.9 Pharmacology
9.9.1 Anti-stress Activity
9.9.2 Anti-anxiety Activity
9.9.3 Immunomodulatory Activity
9.9.4 Antioxidant Activity
9.9.5 Hepatoprotective Activity
9.9.6 Antibacterial Activity
9.10 Synthetic Strategies for Key Secondary Metabolite
9.11 Cultivation Harvesting and Processing
9.12 Formulation and Market Product
9.13 Conservation
9.14 Conclusions and Future Prospective
References
Chapter 10: Humulus Lupulus L.: Beer Plant
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Taxonomy and Distribution
10.3 Morphology
10.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
10.5 Hops Cultivation and Harvesting
10.6 Traditional Uses
10.7 Phytochemistry
10.8 Nutritional Composition
10.9 Pharmacology
10.10 Toxicology
10.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Inula racemosa Hook. f. Pushkarmool: Its Ethnobotanical Uses, Phytochemicals, and Pharmacological Activities
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Ecology and Distribution
11.3 Taxonomy and Botanical Description
11.4 Crude Drug Description and Ethnobotanical Uses
11.5 Anatomical Features of Stem, Root, and Powder
11.6 High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) Profile
11.7 Physico-chemical and Extractive Values
11.8 Phytochemical Contents and Their Groupings into Different Classes
11.9 Pharmacological Activities
11.9.1 Anti-inflammatory Activities
11.9.2 Antimicrobial Activity
11.9.3 Antiparasitic/Larvicidal Activity
11.9.4 Anticancer and Antiproliferative Activity
11.9.5 Hepatoprotective Activity
11.9.6 Antiasthmatic Activity
11.9.7 Antiallergic Activity
11.9.8 Cardioprotective Activity
11.9.9 Antidiabetic Activity
11.9.10 Antiapoptotic and Antiplatelet Activities
11.10 Toxicity
11.11 Conservation and Cultivation Approaches
11.11.1 Cultivation Practices and Harvesting
11.11.2 Tissue Culture: In vitro Micropropagation
11.12 Trades, Product Registrations and Patents
11.12.1 Trade
11.12.2 Patents
11.13 Conclusions and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 12: Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don and Juniperus squamata D. Don: Himalayan Juniper
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Taxonomy
12.3 Vernacular/Common Names
12.4 Geographical Distribution
12.5 Morphology
12.6 Traditional Uses
12.7 Phytochemistry
12.8 Pharmacology
12.9 Key Secondary Metabolites
12.10 Tissue Culture
12.11 Patent
12.12 Conservation
12.13 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 13: Lancea tibetica Hook.f. & Thomson: Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Botany
13.3 Habitat and Distribution
13.4 Traditional Uses of L. tibetica Plant
13.5 Phytochemistry
13.6 Pharmacological Activities
13.7 Conclusion and Future Prospectives
References
Chapter 14: Malaxis muscifera (Lindley) O. Kuntze. and Malaxis acuminata D. Don.: Jeevak
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Morphology and Taxonomy
14.3 Common Names
14.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
14.5 Distribution
14.6 Traditional Uses
14.7 Phytochemistry
14.8 Nutritional Composition
14.9 Pharmacology
14.10 Synthetic Strategies for Key Secondary Metabolite
14.11 Tissue Culture
14.12 Formulation and Market Product
14.13 Conservation
14.14 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
Chapter 15: Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.: Kutki
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Taxonomy and Common Names
15.3 Distribution
15.4 Morphology
15.5 Flowering
15.6 Traditional Uses
15.7 Phytochemistry
15.7.1 Iridoid Glycosides
15.7.2 Steroidal Compounds
15.7.3 Phenolic Compounds
15.7.4 Other Chemical Constituents
15.8 Pharmacology
15.8.1 Hepatoprotective
15.8.2 Neuroprotective
15.8.3 Immunomodulatory
15.8.4 Anti-asthmatic Potential
15.8.5 Anticancer Activity
15.8.6 Anti-inflammatory
15.8.7 Antimicrobial Activity
15.8.8 Nephroprotective
15.8.9 Cardioprotective
15.8.10 Analgesic and Healing Activity
15.8.11 Antioxidant Potential
15.8.12 Other Therapeutic Effects
15.9 Clinical Studies
15.10 Toxicity
15.11 Threats and Conservation
15.11.1 Conservation through Cultivation
15.11.2 Micropropagation
15.12 Cultivation
15.13 Formulation and Market Product
15.14 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 16: Species of the Genus Polygonatum found in the Western Himalayas
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Taxonomy
16.3 Common Names
16.4 Flowering and Fruiting Seasons
16.5 Distribution
16.6 Morphology
16.7 Traditional Uses
16.8 Phytochemistry
16.9 Nutritional Composition
16.10 Pharmacology
16.10.1 Antioxidant Activity
16.10.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity
16.10.3 Tracheorelaxant Activity
16.10.4 Lipoxygenase Activity
16.10.5 Antimalarial Activity
16.10.6 Antipyretic Activity
16.10.7 Antidiarrhoeal Activity
16.10.8 Inhibition of Protein Denaturation
16.10.9 Bronchodilator Activity
16.10.10 Antibacterial Activity
16.10.11 Antifungal Activity
16.10.12 Antispasmodic Activity
16.10.13 Antinociceptive Activity
16.11 Toxicology
16.12 Tissue Culture
16.13 Patent
16.14 Formulation and Market Products
16.15 Conservation
16.16 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 17: Species of the Genus Rhodiola Found in the Western Himalayas
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Taxonomical Status and Common Names
17.3 Distribution
17.4 Morphology
17.5 Traditional Uses
17.6 Phytochemistry
17.6.1 Phytochemistry of Rhodiola imbricata
17.6.2 Phytochemistry of Rhodiola heterodonta
17.6.3 Phytochemistry of R. crenulata
17.6.4 Phytochemistry of R. tibetica
17.7 Pharmacology
17.7.1 Rhodiola imbricata
17.7.1.1 Anti-cancer Activity
17.7.1.2 Immunomodulatory Activity
17.7.1.3 Hepatoprotective Property
17.7.1.4 Wound Healing and Adaptogenic Activity
17.7.1.5 Antioxidant Activity
17.7.1.6 Other Therapeutic Activities
17.7.2 Rhodiola crenulata
17.7.2.1 Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activity
17.7.2.2 Neuroprotective Effect
17.7.2.3 Anti-hypoxial Activity
17.7.2.4 Anti-diabetic
17.7.2.5 Cardioprotective
17.7.2.6 Anti-inflammatory
17.7.2.7 Hepatoprotective
17.7.2.8 Anti-cancer and Anti-fatigue Effect
17.7.2.9 Other Therapeutic Effects
17.7.3 Rhodiola heterodonta
17.7.4 Rhodiola tibetica
17.8 Toxicity Studies
17.9 Tissue Culture
17.10 Synthesis of Secondary Metabolites
17.11 Clinical Trials
17.12 Patents
17.13 Herbal Formulations
17.14 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 18: Saussurea Lappa C.B. Clarke: Kushta/Kut
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Taxonomic Classification of S. Lappa (Gautam and Asrani 2018)
18.3 Common Names: Kur, Kusthah, and Costus
18.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
18.5 Distribution
18.6 Morphology
18.7 Traditional Uses
18.8 Chemical Constituents
18.8.1 Essential Oil
18.8.2 Sesquiterpenoids
18.8.2.1 Guanines Type Sesquiterpenes
18.8.2.2 Eudesmanes Type Sesquiterpene
18.8.2.3 Germacranes Type Sesquiterpene
18.8.3 Flavonoids
18.8.4 Other Constituents
18.9 Pharmacology
18.9.1 Antioxidant
18.9.2 Anticancer/Antitumor
18.9.3 Immunomodulators
18.9.4 Hepatoprotective Activity
18.9.5 Anti-Convulsant Activity
18.9.6 Cardioprotective Effect
18.9.7 Anti-Psychotic
18.9.8 Anti-Inflammatory
18.9.9 Antimicrobial Activity
18.9.10 Spasmolytic Activity
18.9.11 Antiparasitic Activity
18.9.12 Hypolipidemic Activity
18.9.13 Angiogenic Activity
18.9.14 Antidiarrheal Activity
18.10 Clinical Studies
18.11 Toxicology
18.12 Synthetic Strategies for Key Secondary Metabolities
18.13 Cultivation and Harvesting
18.14 Patents
18.15 Formulations
18.16 Conservation
18.17 Trade
18.18 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Hippophae Rhamnoides L.: Sea Buckthorn
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Taxonomy
19.3 Common Names
19.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
19.5 Distribution
19.6 Morphology
19.7 Traditional Uses
19.8 Phytochemistry and Nutritional Composition
19.9 Pharmacology and Clinical Studies
19.10 Toxicology
19.11 Synthetic Strategies for Key Secondary Metabolites
19.12 Cultivation, Harvesting, and Processing
19.13 Tissue Culture
19.14 Formulation and Market Products
19.15 Conservation
19.16 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 20: Species of the Genus Selinum Found in the Western Himalayas
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Botany
20.3 Distribution
20.4 Cultivation and Soil Condition
20.5 Phytochemical Investigations
20.5.1 Volatile Compounds
20.5.2 Terpene Compounds
20.5.3 Coumarin Compounds
20.5.4 Phenolic Compounds
20.5.5 Other Compounds
20.6 Traditional Uses
20.7 Pharmacological Properties
20.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Flem.): Chirayata/Chiretta
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Taxonomy
21.3 Common Names
21.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
21.5 Distribution
21.6 Morphology
21.7 Traditional Uses
21.8 Phytochemistry and Nutritional Composition
21.9 Pharmacology and Clinical Studies
21.10 Toxicology
21.11 Synthetic Strategies for Key Secondary Metabolites
21.12 Cultivation, Harvesting, and Processing
21.13 Tissue Culture
21.14 Formulation and Market Products
21.15 Conservation
21.16 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Taxus wallichiana Zucc.: The Himalayan Yew
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Taxonomy, Distribution, and Morphology of Plants
22.3 Pharmacology
22.3.1 Drug Composition/Properties
22.3.1.1 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activities
22.3.2 Antioxidant Activity
22.3.3 Anticonvulsant and Antipyretic Activity
22.3.4 Analgesic Activity
22.3.5 Hepatoprotective Activity
22.3.6 Cytotoxic and Anticancer Activity In Vitro
22.4 Toxicology
22.5 Clinical Studies
22.5.1 Anticancer Properties
22.5.1.1 Paclitaxel (Taxol)
22.5.1.2 Lignans
22.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity
22.5.3 Anti-Inflammatory and Immuno-Modulatory Properties
22.5.4 Any Other Biological Activity
22.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
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Chapter 23: Tribulus terrestris L.: Gokshur/Gokharu
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Taxonomic Hierarchy of Tribulus terrestris L. (Table 23.1)
23.3 Common Names of T. terrestris (Table 23.2 and 23.3)
23.4 Flowering/Fruiting Season
23.5 Cultivation, Harvesting, and Processing
23.6 Distribution
23.7 Morphology
23.8 Usage in the Past
23.9 Phytochemistry
23.10 Pharmacological Properties
23.10.1 Impact as Antioxidants
23.10.2 Abnormalities Associated with Sex
23.10.3 Antihyperglycemic Effect
23.10.4 Antibacterial Activity
23.10.5 Anti-inflammatory Properties
23.11 Nutritional Composition of T. terrestris
23.11.1 Macronutrients of T. terrestris Plant
23.11.2 Micronutrient Contents of T. Terrestris Plant
23.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 24: Species of the Genus Viola Found in the Western Himalayas
24.1 Introduction
24.1.1 Geographical Distribution
24.2 Immunity and Immune System
24.3 Viola Odorata
24.3.1 Chemical Constituents
24.3.2 V. odorata in Immune Regulation
24.3.3 Other Biological Activities of V. Odorata
24.3.3.1 Antibacterial Effect
24.3.3.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
24.3.3.3 Antihypertensive and Antidyslipidemic Activities
24.3.3.4 Pulmonary Diseases
24.3.3.5 Anticancer Effect
24.3.3.6 Antioxidant Effect
24.3.3.7 Laxative Effects
24.4 Viola betonicifolia
24.4.1 Chemical Constituents
24.4.2 Viola Betonicifolia for Immunity
24.4.3 Other Biological Activities
24.4.3.1 Antioxidant Activity
24.4.3.2 Antimicrobial Activity
24.4.3.3 Neuropharmacological Activities
24.4.3.4 Analgesic Activity
24.5 Viola Canescens
24.5.1 Chemical Constituents
24.5.2 V. Canescens in Immune Regulation
24.5.3 Other Biological Activities
24.6 Immunomodulation Effects of Genus Viola
24.7 Conclusion
References