Imitation and Social Learning in Robots, Humans and Animals: Behavioural, Social and Communicative Dimensions

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Plates......Page 12
Figures......Page 14
Tables......Page 19
Contributors......Page 20
1 Introduction......Page 23
2 Models and mechanisms: a constructivist viewpoint......Page 24
3 The book......Page 25
4 Organization and themes......Page 26
4.1 Thematic sections......Page 27
I Correspondence problems and mechanisms......Page 28
II Mirroring and ‘mind-reading’......Page 29
III What to Imitate......Page 31
IV Development and embodiment......Page 32
V Synchrony and turn-taking as communicative mechanisms......Page 35
VII Social feedback......Page 36
VIII The ecological context......Page 37
References......Page 39
Part I Correspondence problems and mechanisms......Page 41
1 Imitation: thoughts about theories......Page 45
1.1.1 Active Intermodal Mapping......Page 46
1.1.2 Goal Directed Imitation......Page 47
1.1.3 Associative Sequence Learning......Page 48
1.2.1 Effector-dependent observational learning......Page 50
1.2.2 Awareness and imitation......Page 52
1.3 Intentional and incidental imitation......Page 53
References......Page 55
2.1 Matching behaviours......Page 57
2.3 Granularity and metrics......Page 58
2.4.1 What is matched......Page 59
2.4.3 Learning......Page 61
2.5.2 Stimulus/local enhancement......Page 62
2.6.1 Rhythm, interaction and communicative kinesics......Page 63
2.6.2 Relation to human–robot interaction......Page 64
2.8 Learning what to imitate using measures of salience......Page 65
References......Page 66
3.1 Introduction......Page 69
3.2 Challenges with using primitives......Page 70
3.3 Research strategy......Page 72
3.3.1 Testing environments......Page 73
3.4 Learning from observation......Page 76
3.5 Improving performance through practice......Page 79
3.6 Discussion......Page 81
Combining parameter selection and primitive execution......Page 82
A. Selecting a primitive type and generating a sub-goal......Page 83
B. Improving primitive selection and sub-goal generation from practice......Page 84
References......Page 86
Part II Mirroring and ‘mind-reading’......Page 89
4.1 Neurophysiology......Page 93
4.2 Brain imaging......Page 94
4.3 Computational properties......Page 97
4.5 Ontogenesis......Page 99
4.6 Empathy......Page 101
4.7 A link to language......Page 102
4.8 Process vs. representation......Page 104
4.9 Conclusion......Page 105
References......Page 106
5.1.1 Simulation theory......Page 111
5.1.2 Biological evidence......Page 112
5.2.1 Fundamentals......Page 113
5.2.2 Architectures......Page 114
Design and Use of Inverse Models......Page 115
5.3.1 Implementation of inverse models......Page 116
5.3.3 Calculation of confidences......Page 118
5.4 Experiments......Page 119
5.5 Discussion......Page 120
References......Page 122
6.1 Introduction......Page 125
6.2 Two models......Page 126
6.2.2 Visual–visual matching......Page 130
6.2.3 Mirror-correspondence understanding......Page 131
6.2.4 Object-permanence understanding......Page 132
Objectification......Page 134
6.2.6 Kinesthetic–visual matching......Page 136
Kinesthesis, vision and kinesthetic-visual matching in perception of one’s own body......Page 137
Kinesthetic–visual matching between bodies (or body-images)......Page 138
6.3 Motor imagery, kinesthetic–visual matching and
the parietal region......Page 140
The parietal region as the site for kinesthetic–visual matching......Page 142
6.4 Imitation and other activities in early infancy as
objections to the models......Page 144
6.5 Summary......Page 145
References......Page 146
Part III What to imitate?......Page 153
7 The question of ‘what to imitate’: inferring
goals and intentions from demonstrations......Page 157
7.1.1 The functions of imitation......Page 159
7.1.2 The components of a demonstration......Page 160
7.1.3 Inferring goals......Page 162
7.1.4 Implementing goals......Page 165
7.1.5 Stepwise chain of events in imitation......Page 166
7.2 How artificial systems currently answer the question
of ‘what to imitate’......Page 168
Acknowledgments......Page 169
References......Page 170
8.1 Introduction......Page 175
8.2 Experimental set-up......Page 177
8.3.1 Preprocessing by principal component analysis (PCA)......Page 179
8.3.2 Encoding in hidden Markov models (HMMs)......Page 181
8.3.5 Imitation metrics......Page 184
Unidimensional case......Page 185
Multidimensional case......Page 187
8.4 Results and performance of the system......Page 189
8.5 Discussion of the model......Page 191
8.5.1 Similarity with work in psychology and ethology......Page 192
Associative sequence learning (ASL)......Page 193
Algebraic framework for the correspondence problem......Page 196
Acknowledgments......Page 197
References......Page 198
9.1 Introduction......Page 201
9.2 Towards imitation in populations......Page 202
9.2.1 Agents......Page 203
9.2.2 Imitation games......Page 204
9.2.3 Embodiment......Page 206
9.2.4 Self-organization......Page 207
9.3 Imitation and communication......Page 208
9.4.1 Monitoring performance......Page 209
9.4.2 Results......Page 210
9.5 Discussion......Page 212
Acknowledgments......Page 213
References......Page 214
Part IV Development and embodiment......Page 217
10.1 Introduction......Page 221
10.2 The imitative origins of mind-reading......Page 222
10.4 Imitation and mind-reading in ASD......Page 226
10.5 Imitation in autism......Page 228
10.6 Neuroimaging of imitation in autism......Page 229
10.7 Results......Page 230
References......Page 233
11.1 Introduction......Page 239
11.2.1 Body babbling......Page 241
11.2.2 Imitating body movements......Page 242
11.2.3 Imitating actions on objects......Page 244
11.2.4 Inferring intentions......Page 245
11.3 A probabilistic model of imitation......Page 248
11.3.1 Body babbling: learning internal models of one’s own body......Page 249
11.3.2 Bayesian imitative learning......Page 250
11.3.3 Example: learning to solve a maze task through imitation......Page 253
11.3.3.1 Learning a forward model for the maze task......Page 254
11.3.3.2 Imitation using the learned forward model and learned priors......Page 256
11.3.3.3 Inferring the intent of the teacher......Page 258
11.3.3.4 Summary......Page 259
11.3.4 Further applications in robotic learning......Page 260
11.3.5 Towards a probabilistic model for imitation in infants......Page 261
11.4 Prospects for developmental robotics......Page 263
Acknowledgments......Page 265
References......Page 266
12.1 The Agent-based perspective......Page 271
12.2 ALICE overview......Page 272
12.2.3 Building up the correspondence library......Page 274
12.3 The CHESSWORLD testbed......Page 275
12.3.1 Alice in Chessworld......Page 277
12.4 The RABIT testbed......Page 278
12.4.1 Metrics......Page 279
Action metric......Page 281
12.5 Experiments on aspects of imitation......Page 282
12.5.1 Cultural transmission of behaviours and emergence of ‘proto-culture’......Page 283
12.5.3 Proprioceptive matching......Page 286
12.5.4 Loose perceptual matching......Page 288
12.5.5 Changes in the agent embodiment......Page 291
12.6 Conclusions and discussion......Page 293
References......Page 294
Part V Synchrony and turn-taking as communicative mechanisms......Page 297
13.1 Introduction......Page 301
13.2.3 Kinesthesis......Page 302
13.2.5 Autonomy......Page 303
13.2.6 Attraction toward novelty......Page 304
13.2.7 Perception–action coupling......Page 305
13.3 Anything else needed to be an imitator?......Page 306
13.4.1 The two adaptive functions of imitation: learning
and communication......Page 309
13.4.1.1 Turn-taking......Page 310
13.4.1.2 Synchrony......Page 311
13.4.2 Robot......Page 312
13.4.2.1 Synchrony......Page 316
13.5 Concluding comments......Page 317
References......Page 319
14.1 Intersubjectivity and turn-taking......Page 323
14.2.2 Agent’s description......Page 325
14.2.3 Evolution schema......Page 327
14.3 Simulation results......Page 329
14.3.2 Prediction breakdown......Page 330
14.3.3 Coupling with a noise and a non-responding agent......Page 332
14.3.4 Evolution of adaptability......Page 334
14.4 Discussion......Page 336
Appendix......Page 339
References......Page 341
15.1.1 Overview......Page 345
15.1.3 ‘Pure’ bully characteristics: mindreading and empathy......Page 346
15.1.4 Precursors of bullying......Page 347
15.1.4.1 How do bullies become bullies?......Page 348
15.2.1 Imitation and inter-subjectivity......Page 349
15.3.1 Deficits in empathy and autism......Page 350
15.3.1.2 Empathy and psychopathy......Page 351
15.3.1.4 Differences in empathy for autism and psychopathy......Page 352
15.3.2 Empathy and bullying behaviour......Page 353
15.3.2.1 The distinction between automatic and controlled empathy in bullies......Page 355
15.4.1.1 Empathy as a tool for bullying intervention programmes......Page 356
15.4.1.2 The use of imitative interactive behaviour for bullying interventions......Page 357
References......Page 358
Part VI Why imitate? – Motivations......Page 363
16 Multiple motivations for imitation in infancy......Page 365
16.1 Neonatal imitation......Page 367
16.2 Deferred imitation......Page 368
16.3 Synchronic imitation......Page 370
16.4 Imitation of intended but incomplete acts......Page 372
16.5 Imitation from television......Page 373
16.6 Changing motivations to imitate in development......Page 374
16.7 Echolalia......Page 375
16.8 The multi-faceted nature of imitation......Page 376
Acknowledgments......Page 377
References......Page 378
17.1 Introduction......Page 383
17.2 Progress-driven learning......Page 385
17.2.2 Mastery-driven systems......Page 386
17.2.3 Novelty-driven systems......Page 387
17.2.4 The ‘screen’ problem......Page 388
17.2.5 Progress-driven systems......Page 389
17.2.6 Experimental results for the ‘screen problem’......Page 391
17.3 Possible underlying developmental mechanisms
for early imitation......Page 393
17.3.2 Self-imitation (1–2 m)......Page 394
17.3.3 Pseudo-imitation (2–4 m)......Page 395
17.4 Conclusion......Page 396
References......Page 397
Part VII Social feedback......Page 401
18.1 Introduction......Page 405
18.2 Animals, learning and cognitive processing......Page 406
18.2.1 Studies on Grey parrots......Page 408
18.2.2 The model/rival (M/R) technique......Page 409
18.2.3 How aspects of M/R training affect learning......Page 411
18.3.1 Current intervention strategies for children......Page 412
18.3.2 What mediates M/R success?......Page 416
Acknowledgments......Page 420
References......Page 421
19.1 Introduction......Page 429
19.2 Action-based representations......Page 430
19.3 Communication by acting – a means for
robot–human interaction......Page 432
19.3.1 Experiments in communication by acting......Page 433
19.3.2 Discussion......Page 434
19.4 Learning from imitation and additional cues......Page 435
Generalization from a small number of examples......Page 437
Learning from practice and teacher feedback......Page 439
19.5 Related work......Page 441
19.6 Conclusions......Page 443
References......Page 444
Part VIII The ecological context......Page 447
20 Emulation learning: the integration of
technical and social cognition......Page 449
20.1 Distinguishing between imitation and emulation......Page 450
20.2 Studying an unusual species: the kea......Page 452
20.3 The artificial fruit experiment......Page 454
20.4 Technical intelligence in keas......Page 456
20.5 Conclusion......Page 458
References......Page 459
21.1 Introduction......Page 463
21.2 Forms of deceptive resemblance in nature......Page 464
21.3 Fixed vs. dynamic mimicry......Page 465
21.4 The cephalopods......Page 467
21.5 Mimicry in cephalopods......Page 468
21.6 Origins of dynamic mimicry......Page 471
References......Page 474
Index......Page 477