Hydrogen for Future Thermal Engines

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Fundamental Aspects
Hydrogen: Where it Can Be Used, How Much is Needed, What it May Cost
1 From Science to the Rio Earth Summit
2 Hydrogen Programmes Before 2015
3 From Kyoto, Via Paris, to Glasgow and on to 2050
4 Overview: The `Net Zero Emissions Scenario' and the `1.5°C Scenario'
5 Hydrogen: Production and Production Costs
6 Hydrogen: International Distribution and Bulk Storage
7 Ammonia as a Fuel
8 Hydrogen for Land Transport
9 Hydrogen for Ships and Aeroplanes
10 Hydrogen: The Approach in the EU
11 Hydrogen: The Approach in the USA
11.1 Hydrogen: Intended Production Capacity and Demand in the USA
11.2 Hydrogen: Costs, and Programmes for Their Reduction, in the USA
11.3 Hydrogen: Development Over Time in the USA
11.4 Outlook
References
Reaction Kinetics of Hydrogen Combustion
1 Early History
2 Understanding the Basic Features of the Hydrogen Combustion System Using a 10-Step Mechanism
3 Available Experimental Data
3.1 Indirect Experimental Data
3.2 Direct Measurements and Theoretical Determinations of Rate Coefficients
4 Recent Detailed Reaction Mechanisms
5 New Developments in Hydrogen Combustion Kinetics: Nonthermal Reactions
6 Challenges and Prospects
References
Hydrogen Laminar Flames
1 Introduction
2 Laminar Premixed Flames Features
2.1 Enhanced Unstretched Laminar Flame Speed SL
2.2 Stretch Effects
2.3 Effecs of Intrinsic Flame Instability
3 Intrinsic Flame Instabilities: Theory
3.1 A Weakly Nonlinear Model for the Flame
3.2 Alternative Approaches for Intrinsic Flame Instabilities
4 Intrinsic Flame Instabilities: Experimental Observations
4.1 Spherical Flames
4.2 Hele-Shaw Cells
5 Intrinsic Flame Instabilities: Simulations
5.1 The Linear Regime
5.2 The Non-linear Regime
5.3 Modeling Aspects
References
Turbulent Flames of Hydrogen
1 Introduction
2 Turbulent Diffusion Flames
2.1 Global Features
2.2 Compositional Structure
3 Turbulent Premixed Flames
3.1 Global Features
3.2 Flame Speed and Structure
4 Modelling Differential Diffusion
5 Future Prospects
6 Closing Remarks
References
Hydrogen Ignition and Safety
1 Introduction
2 The Chemistry of H2 Ignition
2.1 Preliminary Definitions and Notation
2.2 Minimal Kinetic Description
2.3 A Simplified Study of High-Temperature Ignition—Crossover Definition
2.4 An Eigenvalue Study of the Branching Reactions
2.5 Radical-Pool Composition
2.6 Analytical Derivation of Branching Times
2.7 Thermal Runaway
2.8 Recap: Analytical Formulas for H2 Induction Times
3 Limit Phenomena in Canonical Flow Configurations
3.1 Explosion in a Closed Vessel: The Three Explosion Limits
3.2 Premixed Flames: Flammability Limits
3.3 Detonation Propagation Limits
3.4 Diffusion Flames: Ignition in Mixing Layer
3.5 Thermal Ignition
3.6 Shock-Induced Ignition
3.7 Diffusion Flames: Extinction Limits
4 How to Ignite: Ignition Strategies
4.1 A Simplified Conceptual Model of a H2 Combustion Chamber
4.2 Ignition Sequence
4.3 Minimal Thermal Power Required
4.4 A List of Igniter Technologies
5 How Not to Ignite: Application to Safety Issues
5.1 A Simple Rule-of-Thumb Example
5.2 A Computational Example: The Cabra H2 Jet Flame
5.3 Post-processing
5.4 A Priori Prediction of Hazardous Ignition from Cold-Flow Simulations
6 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Turbulent Hydrogen Flames: Physics and Modeling Implications
1 Introduction
2 Turbulent Regime Diagram
3 Governing Equations
4 Turbulent Flame Speed
4.1 Global Turbulent Flame Speed
4.2 Local Flame Displacement Speed
5 Flamelet and PDF Modeling
6 Summary, Additional Challenges, and Future Prospects
References
Applications
Hydrogen-Fueled Stationary Combustion Systems
1 Introduction: Challenges and Opportunities for Stationary Combustion Systems
2 State of the Art
2.1 Lab-Scale Systems: Understanding H2 Combustion Properties
2.2 Hydrogen in Quasi-Industrial Furnaces
2.3 Radiation
2.4 Hydrogen in Commercial and Industrial Systems
3 Numerical Modeling in Stationary Combustion Systems
3.1 Laboratory Scale Burners
3.2 Conditional Moment Closure models
3.3 Transported PDF Models
4 Numerical Studies on Industrial Configurations
5 Research Trends and Future Directions
5.1 Digital Twins
6 Conclusions
References
Hydrogen-Fueled Spark Ignition Engines
1 Introduction
2 The Properties of Hydrogen Relevant to SI Engine Operation
2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Hydrogen
2.2 Properties of Hydrogen Mixtures
2.3 Abnormal Combustion Phenomena
2.4 In-Cylinder Heat Transfer
3 Operating Strategies for Hydrogen SI Engines
3.1 Introduction: Hardware Choices
3.2 Power Density and Transient Response
3.3 Efficiency
3.4 Emissions
3.5 Trade-Offs
4 Past and Present R&D on Hydrogen SI Engines and Vehicles
4.1 Introduction
4.2 OEM Prototype Hydrogen Engines
4.3 Engine Components
4.4 Market Considerations
5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Hydrogen Compression Ignition Engines
1 Introduction/Early Years
2 Challenges and Limitations
2.1 Single-fuel Operation
2.2 Energy Density
2.3 Abnormal Combustion
2.4 NOx Emissions
2.5 Incomplete Combustion at Low Loads
2.6 Safety
3 Engine Design/Modifications
3.1 Hydrogen Injection Systems
3.2 Other Modifications
4 Hydrogen as a Supplementary Fuel
4.1 Hydrogen-diesel Dual-fuel Engine
4.2 Hydrogen-biofuel Dual-fuel Engine
4.3 Alternative Hydrogen Substitution Systems
5 Combustion Control Strategies
5.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation
5.2 Injection Strategies
5.3 Compression Ratio
5.4 Water Injection
5.5 Inert and Reactive Gas Dilution
6 Future Direction
References
Hydrogen Combustion in Gas Turbines
1 Introduction
2 Challenges with Hydrogen Gas Turbine Combustion Systems
2.1 Stabilisation and Flashback
2.2 Thermoacoustics
2.3 Nitrogen Oxides
2.4 Modelling
3 Future Prospects
4 Conclusions
5 Supplementary Material
References
Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Combustion
1 Introduction
2 Chemistry and Dynamics of Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Combustion
2.1 Chemistry of Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Combustion
2.2 Dynamics of Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Combustion
2.3 Plasma Thermal-Chemical Instability
3 Application of Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Combustion in Advanced Thermal Engines
3.1 Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Ignition
3.2 Application of Plasma-Assisted Hydrogen Combustion in Propulsion Systems
3.3 Deflagration to Detonation Transition
4 Summary and Future Research
References
Abnormal Combustion in Hydrogen-Fuelled IC Engines
1 Overview
2 Pre-ignition/Backfire
3 Knocking Combustion
4 Modelling Abnormal Combustion
5 Methods to Prevent Abnormal Combustion
6 Summary
References
Hydrogen Fueled Low-Temperature Combustion Engines
1 Introduction: Hydrogen-Fueled Low-Temperature Combustion Engine
2 Fuel Injection Strategy: HCCI and RCCI Combustion Mode
3 Hydrogen Fueled HCCI Engine
3.1 HCCI Engine: Performance and Combustion Characteristics
3.2 HCCI Engine: Emission Characteristics
4 Hydrogen-Fueled Dual-Fuel and RCCI Engine
4.1 Dual-Fuel and RCCI Engine: Performance Characteristics
4.2 Dual-Fuel and RCCI Engine: Combustion Characteristics
4.3 Dual-Fuel and RCCI Engine: Emission Characteristics
5 Challenges Associated with the Use of Hydrogen in HCCI and Dual-Fuel Engine
6 Future Prospects
References
Detonative Propulsion
1 Introduction
2 Types of Engines
2.1 Standing Detonation Wave Engines
2.2 RAMAC Accelerator
2.3 Pulsed Detonation Engine (PDE)
2.4 Rotating Detonation Engines (RDE)
3 Numerical Methods for Simulation of Detonation Engines
4 Application of Numerical Methods to Simulation of Detonation Engines
5 Future Application of Detonative Propulsion
6 Summary and Conclusions
References