Human Viruses: Diseases, Treatments and Vaccines: The New Insights

Acknowledgements
Viral Pandemics: COVID-19 is Only a Trailer—We Ought Not to Wait for the Whole Film to Run
Editor’s Worries About the Changing World
Contents
Editor and Contributors
Introduction to Human Viruses
1 Human Viruses: Infection, Prevention and Potential Target(s) for Therapy – A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Infections: Acute and Chronic
3 Infectious Agents that Can Cause Human Diseases
4 Viruses and Human Diseases
5 Virus Infection Can Lead to Cancer
References
Dengue Virus
2 Dengue Preventive Strategies Through Entomological Control, Vaccination and Biotechnology
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Hosts of Dengue Virus Transmission
2 Control of Dengue Virus Transmission
2.1 Chemical Approach
2.2 Biological Approach
2.3 Predators
2.4 Parasitoid
2.5 Plants
3 Application of Biotechnology in Dengue Control
3.1 Genetically-Modified Aedes Aegypti
4 Vaccination and Vaccine Development Against Dengue
4.1 Concept of Chimerism in Dengue Vaccinology
5 Conclusion
References
3 Dengue Fever Epidemic in Pakistan and Its Control Measures: Where Are We Moving?
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Dengue Serotypes
3 Prevalence of Dengue Serotypes in Pakistan
4 Seasonal Effects of Dengue Outbreak
5 Climate Change Adds to Risk Factors
6 Dengue Infection Statistics in 2019
7 Way Forward
8 Treatment for Dengue Virus Infection
9 Conclusion
References
4 Employing Geographic Information System and Spatiotemporal Analysis of Dengue Outbreaks in a Metropolitan Area in Pakistan
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Study Area
2.1 Data Acquisition and Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
5 Identification of Dengue NS2B-NS3 Protease Inhibitors Through High-Throughput Virtual Screening—Impacts on Drug Development Against the Dengue Virus
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Structure of Dengue NS2B-NS3 Protease
3 High-Throughput Virtual Screening Against Dengue NS2B-NS3 Protease
4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Ebola Virus
6 Ebola Virus: Overview, Genome Analysis and Its Antagonists
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Harking Down the Past Lanes, Recapitulation About Ebola Virus Disease
3 Factors: Reservoir of Ebola Zoonotic Viruses
4 Pathophysiology of EBOV: Immune System Under Attack!
5 Diagnosis and Prognosis
6 Ebola Virus Genome: Explanation and Comparison
7 Computational Genome Sequencing Solves EBOLA Mystery
8 Discussion, Conclusion, and Research Directions
Acknowledgements
Conflict of Interest
References
7 Global Outbreaks of Ebola Virus Disease and Its Preventive Strategies
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Ebola Virus Biology
3 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis
4 Epidemiology of Ebola Virus Disease
5 Ebola Virus Vaccination
6 rVSV Technology for EVD Vaccination
7 Preventive Approaches Other Than Vaccination
8 Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
References
Chikungunya Virus
8 Chikungunya Disease: A Concise Review and Its Transmission Model for India
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 History of Outbreaks and Geographical Distribution
3 Chikungunya in India
4 Phylogenetic Analysis of Chikungunya Virus
5 Life Cycle of Chikungunya Virus Vectors—The Mosquitoes
6 Molecular Structure and Genome Organisation of Chikungunya Virus
7 Pathogenesis of Chikungunya Virus
7.1 Immune Response to Chikungunya Virus
8 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Virus
9 Treatment of Disease
10 Transmission of Chikungunya Virus
11 Control of Mosquito Breeding
12 Climate Driven Chikungunya Transmission Potential Model
12.1 Basic Reproduction Rate (R0) Model
13 Climatic Conditions in India
14 Temperature Dependent Chikungunya Transmission Potential Model
15 R0 Model for India
16 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
9 Effect of Chikungunya Viral Infection on the Auditory System
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Clinical Presentations
3 Chikungunya Virus Effect on the Auditory System
4 Peripheral Neuropathy
5 Conclusion
References
Epstein-Barr Viruses
10 Brief Introduction of Epstein-Barr Virus and Lymphoma
Abstract
1 Epstein-Barr Virus
2 Historic Context
3 Lymphomas Associated With EBV Infection
4 Role of EBV In Oncogenesis Of Burkitt Lymphoma
5 Conclusion
References
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
11 Diagnosis, Prognosis and Clinical Trial in Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
Abstract
1 History and Geographical Distribution
2 Causative Agent
3 Seasonal Distribution
4 Risk Groups
5 Transmission
6 Clinical Findings
7 Laboratory Findings
8 Diagnosis
9 Differential Diagnosis
10 Treatment
11 Vaccine
12 Novel Biomarkers in CCHF
12.1 Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers
13 Conclusion
References
Zika Virus
12 Zika Virus Disease: Progress and Prospects
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Epidemiology of Zika Virus Infection
3 Antibody-Dependent Enhancement
4 Understanding the Host-Immune Response
5 Investigational Medicines for the Treatment of Zika
6 Conclusions
7 Future Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
13 The Medicinal Chemistry of Zika Virus
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Zika Virus Infection
1.2 Epidemiology of Zika Virus
2 Zika Virus Structure
2.1 Zika Virus Replication Cycle
2.2 Targets at Zika virus for Developing Antiviral Agents
3 Medicinal Chemistry of Zika Virus
3.1 Natural Compounds
3.2 Nature-Based Compounds
3.3 Semi-Synthetic Compounds
3.4 Synthetic Compounds
3.5 Drug Repurposing for Zika Virus
3.5.1 Antiviral Drugs
3.5.2 Lipid-Lowering Drugs and Nutraceuticals
3.5.3 Antiasthmatic Drugs
3.5.4 Antimalarial Drugs
3.5.5 Anthelmintic Drugs
3.5.6 Antihistamine Drugs
3.5.7 Antimicrobial Drugs
3.5.8 Anticancer Drugs
3.5.9 Other Repurposed Drugs
3.6 Other Inhibitors Against Zika Virus
3.6.1 Free Form Amino Acid (FFAAP)
3.6.2 Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP)
3.6.3 Ferric Ammonium Citrate (FAC)
3.6.4 Benzoxazine/Carbon Dots (BZM-CD)
3.6.5 Guanylate-Binding Proteins (GBPs)
3.6.6 Protein–Protein Inhibitors (PPIs)
3.6.7 Vivo-Morpholino
3.6.8 Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors (CDKi)
3.6.9 Non-competitive Inhibitor of Inosine-5′-Monophosphate Dehydrogenase
3.6.10 Pan-Caspase Inhibitors
3.6.11 Innate Immunity Targets
4 Final Considerations and Future Outlook
Acknowledgements
Funding
Declaration of Interest
References
Human Papillomavirus
14 Human Papillomavirus and Its Role in the Development of Cancer
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Classification
3 HPV Infection Epidemiology and Diagnostics
4 HPV Structure
5 HPV Life Cycle
6 HPV-Induced Carcinogenesis
7 HPV Vaccines and Treatment
8 Conclusion
References
Hepatitis B Virus
15 Characterization of Hepatitis B Virus with Complex Structural Variations
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Complex Structural Variation
3 Complex SVs in HBV
4 Method of Analysis
5 Architecture of Complex SVs in HBV
6 Insertional Motifs
7 Position of Complex SVs
8 Classification of Complex SVs in HBV
9 Clinical Implications and Future Perspective
10 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Enteroviruses
16 Impact of Genetic Changes in the Enterovirus 71 Genome on Virulence
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Recombination
3 Recombination Between EV-A71 and Other Enteroviruses
4 Recombination with Poliovirus and its Implications for EV-A71 Associated HFMD
5 Mutation and its impact on pathogenesis of EV-A71
6 Spontaneous Mutation in the 5′-NTR of EV-A71
7 Spontaneous Mutations in the VP1 of EV-A71
8 Spontaneous Mutations in the 2A and 3C of EV-A71
9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
Merkel Cell Polyomavirus
17 Ubiquitous Merkel Cell Polyomavirus: Causative Agent of the Rare Merkel Cell Carcinoma
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Genomic Organization and Molecular Virology of Merkel Cell Polyomavirus
3 Frequency of MCPyV Infection in Human
4 Merkel Cells and Merkel Cell Carcinoma
5 MCPyV: An Etiological Agent of MCC
6 How Does MCPyV Cause MCC?
7 Treatment of MCC
8 Conclusion
References
Hantavirus
18 Hantaviruses—A Concise Review of a Neglected Virus
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Discoveries of Hantaviruses
3 Ecology and Diversity of Hantaviruses
4 Transmission of Hantaviruses
5 Determinants of Prevalence and Distribution of Hantaviruses
6 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections
7 Box 1. 2018 Person to Person Outbreak in Argentine Patagonia—A Case Study
8 Conclusion
References
Flaviviruses
19 Introduction to Flaviviruses and Their Global Prevalence
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Vectors of Flaviviruses
2.1 Flaviviruses as Arboviruses
2.2 Directly Transmitted Flaviviruses
3 Flaviviral Genome Organisation
3.1 Structural Proteins
3.2 Non-Structural Proteins
3.3 5′ and 3′ UTRs: Crucial Roles Played by Untranslated Regions
3.3.1 5′ UTR
3.3.2 3′UTR
4 Process of Viral Entry and Replication
4.1 Pathogenesis of Flaviviruses
4.2 Role/Importance of Cyclization in Replication
5 Antiviral Drug Development
6 Vaccine Development
7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
HIV-HBV Viruses
20 HIV-HBV Co-infection, Clinical Concerns
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Prevalence
3 Complications in HIV-HBV Co-Infection
4 Treatment
5 Conclusion
Author Contributions:
References
Rabies Virus
21 Catalysis of mRNA Capping with GDP Polyribonucleotidyltransferase Activity of Rabies Virus L Protein
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Transcription and Replication
3 The L Protein
4 mRNA Capping
5 Roles of the Priming-Capping Loop of the RABV PRNTase Domain in RNA Biosynthesis
6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Monkeypox Virus
22 Unveiling the Arcane of an Elusive Virus from the Heart of the African Continent: The Monkeypox
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 The Monkeypox Virus
3 Clinic
4 Surveillance and Prevalence
5 Diagnostic
6 Treatment, Control and Prevention
7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Measles Virus
23 Brief Introduction of Measles Virus and Its Therapeutic Strategies
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Measles Virus: History and Re-Emergence of the Virus
2.1 A Brief History of Measles Virus
2.2 Measles Virus Re-Emergence
3 Promising Drug Targets
3.1 Measles Virus Structure and Its Replication
4 Therapeutic Strategies Against Measles Virus
4.1 Synthetic Compounds
4.1.1 Nucleoside Inhibitors
4.1.2 Non-nucleoside Inhibitors
4.1.3 Peptide and Non-peptide Analogs
4.1.4 Quinoline Derivatives
Isoquinolin-4-Ones
Isozaxoles
4.1.5 Retinoids
4.1.6 Peptide-Conjugated Morpholino Oligomers
4.1.7 Pyrimidines and Their Derivatives
4.1.8 Cytochalasin B as MV Inhibitor
4.2 Biological Approaches
4.2.1 Glycosaminoglycan
4.2.2 Interferon
4.3 Immunological Approach
4.3.1 Peptide-Based Vaccine
4.3.2 Plant-Based Vaccine
4.4 Natural Compounds
5 Challenges and Opportunities
6 Conclusion and Future Outlooks
Acknowledgements
Funding
References
Corona Virus and SARS-CoV-2
24 Lethal Human Coronavirus Infections and the Role of Vaccines in Their Prevention
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Features of SARS, MERS and SARS-CoV-2
1.2 Disease Transmission and Pathology of Coronaviruses
1.3 Lessons Learned from Vaccine Approaches to SARS and MERS CoVs
2 CoV Preclinical Models
3 Vaccine Approaches
3.1 Inactivated CoV Vaccines
3.2 Protein Subunit CoV Vaccines
3.3 Viral Vectors
3.4 mRNA CoV Vaccines
3.5 DNA CoV Vaccines
4 Vaccine-Enhanced Disease
5 Important Considerations and Future Outlook for CoV Vaccines
References
25 SARS-CoV-2 Mutations: An Insight
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 SARS-CoV-2: A Betacoronavirus
3 Genomics of SARS-CoV-2
4 Mutations Reported in SARS-CoV-2 Over the Time
5 SARS-CoV-2: Mutating Fast or Slow?
6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
26 A Brief Introduction to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the Roles of Zoonotic Spillover
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Zoonotic Spill-Over
3 Clinical Manifestations
4 Conclusion
References
27 Treatment of COVID-19 by Combination Therapy with 5-fluorouracil, Ribonucleosides and Ribavirin—A Modified Strategy
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Genetic Makeup of Viruses
1.2 Virus Replication Cycle
2 Viruses of Past Epidemics and Pandemics and Continuing Diseases
3 Present Pandemic of SARS-CoV-2
4 Consequence of the Pandemic
5 Finding Treatment for COVID-19
6 Author’s Proposal for the Treatment
6.1 Theory Behind the Treatment
6.2 5-Fluorouracil
6.3 Ribavirin and Lethal Mutagenesis
7 Drug Delivery
8 Conclusion
References
Antiviral Agents
28 HIV-1 and HBV RNase H as Metal-Chelating Inhibitors: Discovery and Medicinal Chemistry Strategies
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Medicinal Chemistry Approaches in Lead Discovery
2.1 Anti-RNase H Agents from Natural Products
2.2 High-Throughput Screening Approach
2.3 Drug Repositioning and Phenotypic Screening
2.4 Novel RNase H Inhibitors Obtained by Using “Click Chemistry”
3 Medicinal Chemistry Approaches for Structural Optimization of RNase H Inhibitors
3.1 Knowledge-Based Pharmacophore Hybridization
3.2 Structure-Based Design of Double-Winged RNase H Inhibitors
3.3 RNase H Inhibitors Obtained from Privileged Fragment-Based Libraries
4 Dual anti- HIV-1 Integrase (iN) and RNase H Agents
5 Conclusion
Funding
References
Viral Vaccines
29 Vaccines for Emerging Viruses—A Comprehensive Update
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Emergence of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19
3 Vaccine Platform Strategies
4 Viral Vector Technology
4.1 Replication Competent (Live—Attenuated) Viral Vectors
4.2 Replication Defective Approaches
5 Virus-Like Particle Antigens
6 Synthetic Peptides
7 Inactivated Viruses
8 Nucleic Acid Vaccines (Synthetic Vaccinology)
9 Self-disseminating Wildlife Reservoir Vaccines
10 General Perspectives and Outlook in the Context of COVID-19
11 Conclusions
References
30 Global Polio Eradication: Progress and Challenges
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Polio: Basic Characteristics
3 Polio: Control and Eradication
4 Vaccines
5 Surveillance
6 Epidemiology: Wild Poliovirus
6.1 Progress Towards Eradication: 1988–2016
6.2 The Last Reservoirs, Afghanistan and Pakistan: 2017–2020
6.2.1 Pakistan
6.2.2 Afghanistan
7 Epidemiology: circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV)
7.1 The Switch and cVDPV2 Resurgence
8 Looking Forward
8.1 Policy and Endgame Strategy
8.2 Research and Development
9 Conclusion
References
31 Passive Immunization to Pandemic Viruses Through Herd Parties
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
General Virology
32 Phage Therapy of Human Bacterial Infections: A Systematic Review
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Structures and Compositions of Bacteriophages
3 Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
4 Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles of Bacteriophages
5 History of Bacteriophage Therapies
6 Bacterial Species Resistant to Antibiotics and/or Phages
7 Infectious Pathogens and Their Phages
7.1 Klebsiella Species
8 Phage Plus Antibiotic Combination Therapies
9 Phage Enzymes and Lytic Proteins in Phage Therapies
10 Phage-Based Human Vaccines
11 Phage Therapies of Systemic Diseases
12 Conclusion
References
33 Oligomerization of Fusion Proteins: A Common Symptom for Class I Viruses
Abstract
1 Protein Oligomerization
2 Membrane Fusion and Fusion Proteins
3 Oligomerization: A Key Aspect of the Fusion Proteins
4 Hemagglutinin Fusion Protein from Influenza Virus
5 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Envelope Glycoprotein
6 Spike Protein (S) from SARS-CoV
7 Spike Protein (S) from SARS-CoV-2
8 Fusion Peptides and Their Oligomeric Status
9 Fusion Proteins Are Potential Targets for Vaccines
10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgements
References
34 Fluorescence Imaging Approaches in Flavivirus Research
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Immunofluorescence Assays (IFA)
3 Protocol: Rapid IFA for Labeling DENV/ZIKV Structural and Nonstructural Proteins
4 Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
5 Fluorescence-Labeled Viral Particles
6 Fluorescent Labeling of Cytopathic Effect (CPE)
7 Protocol: Real-time CPE Labeling Kinetics in Flavivirus Infected BHK-21 / Vero Cells
8 Subgenomic Reporter Replicons (SRRs) and Reporter Virus Particles (RVPs)
9 Cell-Based Molecular Reporters (CBMRs)
10 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
35 The Genetics of Post-polio Syndrome—An Overview
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Genomic Structure of the Virus and Its Pathogenesis
2 Molecular Genetics of Polio Virus
2.1 Poliovirus Receptor (PVR)/CD155
2.2 Alanine (Ala) 67 Threonine (Thr) Polymorphism
3 Cytogenetic Studies of Polio Virus
4 Treatment
5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Index