Human Factors In Privacy Research

Foreword
Acknowledgements
About This Book
Contents
Part I Theory
Data Collection Is Not Mostly Harmless: An Introduction to Privacy Theories and Basics
1 Introduction
2 Privacy Theories
2.1 How (Not) to Define Privacy
3 Why Do We Need Privacy?
References
From the Privacy Calculus to Crossing the Rubicon: An Introduction to Theoretical Models of User Privacy Behavior
1 Introduction
2 Homo Economicus
3 Antecedents → Privacy Concerns → Outcomes (APCO) Model
4 Theory of Planned Behavior
5 Cognitive Consistency Theories
6 Transactional Model of Stress and Coping
7 Rubicon Model
8 Capability, Opportunity, Motivation → Behavior (COM-B) System
9 Health Action Process Approach
10 Conclusion
References
Part II Methodology
Empirical Research Methods in Usable Privacy and Security
1 Introduction
2 Research Methods in UPS Studies
2.1 Systematic Literature Reviews
2.2 Interviews
2.3 Focus Groups
2.4 Co-Creation Methods
2.5 Surveys
2.6 Analyzing Measurement Data (Data Logs)
2.7 Extracting Online Datasets
2.8 Experience Sampling Method
2.9 Experiments
3 Techniques that Can Be Used in Combination with Methods
4 Participant Recruitment
5 Basics of Ethical Research Design with Human Participants
5.1 Ethical Core Principles
5.2 Ethical Considerations for Deceptive Research
5.3 Ethical Review Boards
6 Biases in Research with Human Participants
7 Conclusion
References
Toward Valid and Reliable Privacy Concern Scales: The Example of IUIPC-8
1 Introduction
2 Information Privacy Concern
2.1 What Is Information Privacy Concern?
2.2 Information Privacy Concern Instruments
3 Validity and Reliability
3.1 Construct Validity
3.2 Reliability
4 Factor Analysis as Tool to Establish Measurement Instruments
4.1 Estimation Methods for Ordinal Non-normal Data
4.2 Comparing Nested Models
4.3 Global and Local Fit
5 Approach
5.1 Analysis Methodology
5.2 Sample
5.3 Validity and Reliability Criteria
6 The Validation of IUIPC-8
6.1 Sample
6.2 Descriptives
6.3 Construct Validity
Factorial Validity
Model Fit
CFA Model, Convergent, and Discriminant Validity
6.4 Reliability: Internal Consistency
7 Discussion
8 Summary
Appendix
Materials and Sample
Thresholds
References
Achieving Usable Security and Privacy Through Human-Centered Design
1 Introduction
2 Background
2.1 Human-Centered Design
2.2 Usable Security and Privacy
3 Mental Models in Security and Privacy
3.1 Mental Models in Human–Computer Interaction
3.2 Mental Models in Usable Security and Privacy
3.3 Mental Model Elicitation
4 Usable Security and Privacy Needs
4.1 USP Needs as a Requirements Type
4.2 USP Needs Elicitation and Analysis
4.3 USP Needs Documentation and Validation
4.4 Example Case Study
5 User Group Profiles and Privacy Personas
5.1 User Group Profiles
5.2 Privacy Personas
6 Summary and Conclusion
References
What HCI Can Do for (Data Protection) Law—Beyond Design
1 Introduction
2 The Call for Effective Measures: A Door Opener for Empirical Sciences
3 Going Beyond Designing Law: The Case for the Full Toolbox of HCI Research
4 Levels of Engagement: How HCI and Law Can Make Data Protection More Effective
4.1 Case 1: Cookie Banners
4.2 Case 2: Data Subject Rights
4.3 Implementation: What Can Design Do for Law?
4.4 Evaluation: How Well Is Law Currently Working?
4.5 Identification: Challenging Existing Legal Interpretations and Concepts
5 The Road Ahead
References
Expert Opinions as a Method of Validating Ideas: Applied to Making GDPR Usable
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Collecting Interview Data
2.2 Participants
2.3 Thematic Analysis
3 The Need to Evaluate and Measure Usability of Privacy
3.1 Evaluating Usability of Privacy
3.2 Measuring Usability of Privacy
4 Usable Privacy Definition Adapts Well ISO 9241-11:2018
5 A Comprehensive List of Usable Privacy Goals
6 Ways to Meet the Usable Privacy Criteria
7 Usable Privacy Cube Model as an Abstraction of Known and Implied Principles of Privacy Evaluations
8 Summarizing the Results of the Validation Study
9 Conclusion
References
Part III Application Areas
Privacy Nudges and Informed Consent? Challenges for Privacy Nudge Design
1 Introduction to Nudging
2 An Overview on Privacy Nudges
3 Ethical Considerations
4 Challenges of Designing Privacy Nudges
5 Discussion of Approaches
5.1 Design of Privacy-Preserving Nudges
5.2 Design of Nudges that Target Reflective Thinking
5.3 Ask the Users
5.4 Choose a Combination of Approaches
6 Summary
References
The Hows and Whys of Dark Patterns: Categorizations and Privacy
1 Introduction
2 Dark Patterns
2.1 Why Do Dark Patterns Work?
Heuristics and Biases
2.2 Privacy Decision-Making
2.3 Categorization of Dark Patterns
3 Privacy Dark Patterns
3.1 Examples of Privacy Dark Patterns
Invisible to the Human Eye
UI Design Tricks
Constrained Actionability
Emotion-Related
Affecting Comprehension
Time-Related
Affecting Privacy Options
3.2 Tackling (Privacy) Dark Patterns
3.3 Dark Patterns and Implications on Businesses
4 Concluding Remarks
References
``They see me scrollin''—Lessons Learned from Investigating Shoulder Surfing Behavior and Attack Mitigation Strategies
1 Introduction
2 Investigating the Phenomenon
2.1 Defining Shoulder Surfing (Attacks)
2.2 Research Methods
2.3 Key Findings on Shoulder Surfing Behavior
3 Mitigating Shoulder Surfing Attacks
3.1 Threat Models
3.2 Algorithmic Detection of Attacks
3.3 Prevention Strategies
4 Challenges and Future Research Directions
5 Conclusion
References
Privacy Research on the Pulse of Time: COVID-19 Contact-Tracing Apps
1 Introduction
2 Tracing Technologies
2.1 Proximity Tracing
2.2 Risk Calculation and Informing Those at Risk
3 Privacy and Contact Tracing Apps—User Studies
3.1 Results from User Studies—Privacy Concerns
3.2 Influence of Privacy on Using a CTA
4 Privacy: A Matter of Asking? Looking at Different Methods
4.1 Timing and Context
4.2 Who Is Asked?
4.3 Privacy Concerns != Privacy Concerns
5 Conclusion
References
Privacy Perception and Behavior in Safety-Critical Environments
1 Introduction
2 On the Relationship Between Cyber Privacy and Security Behavior
3 Awareness on Data Sharing Functionalities and Acceptance of Private Data Sharing
4 Critical Environment I: Digital Privacy Perceptions of Asylum Seekers in Germany
5 Critical Environment II: The Role of Privacy in Digitalization—Analyzing Perspectives of German Farmers
6 Conclusion
References
Part IV Solutions
Generic Consents in Digital Ecosystems: Legal, Psychological, and Technical Perspectives
1 Challenge and Vision
2 Generic Consents
3 Legal Assessment
3.1 Personal Information Management Systems in Digital Ecosystems
3.2 Obtaining Consent via a PIMS
3.3 Using Allowlists in Digital Ecosystems
Solution 1: Organizational Allowlists
Solution 2: User-Defined Allowlists
3.4 Legal Conclusion
4 User-Oriented Redesign of Consent Handling
4.1 Psychological Effects of Cookie Banners
Problem 1: Upfront Consents
Problem 2: Coerced Consents
Problem 3: Poor User Experience
Problem 4: Unclear Utility
Problem 5: Dark Patterns
Problem 6: Repeated Consents
4.2 Solutions for Improved User Experience
Solution 1: Make Cookies Something of Later Concern
Solution 2: Reject Until Further Notice
Solution 3: Provide Differentiated Decision Support
Solution 4: Encourage Decision Review
5 Feasibility of Technical Implementation
5.1 Consent Representation Formats
5.2 Consent Forwarding
5.3 Data Forwarding
6 Discussion
6.1 Allowlists Created by NGOs (Solution 1)
6.2 Allowlists Created by the User (Solution 2)
6.3 Blocklists
6.4 Usability
7 Conclusion
References
Human-Centered Design for Data-Sparse Tailored Privacy Information Provision
1 Motivation
2 Overview of Extant Transparency-Enhancing Technologies
2.1 Tailoring Potential of Transparency-Enhancing Technologies
3 Solution Space for Tailoring Challenges
3.1 Privacy Preferences
3.2 Technical Privacy-Preserving Mechanisms
4 Solution Archetypes for Tailored Privacy Information Provision
4.1 Suitability of Tailoring Approaches
4.2 Feasibility of Local and Remote Processing
5 Conclusions
References
Acceptance Factors of Privacy-Enhancing Technologies on the Basis of Tor and JonDonym
1 Introduction and Background
2 Methodology
2.1 Questionnaire Composition
2.2 Questionnaire Data Collection
2.3 Questionnaire Evaluation
Quantitative Methods
Qualitative Methods
2.4 Interview Data Collection
2.5 Interview Evaluation
3 Results
3.1 Internet Users Information Privacy Concerns
3.2 Technology Acceptance Model
3.3 Evaluation of Open Questions
3.4 Customers' Willingness to Pay or Donate
3.5 Companies' Incentives and Hindrances to Implement PETs
4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Increasing Users' Privacy Awareness in the Internet of Things: Design Space and Sample Scenarios
1 Introduction
2 Background and Related Work
2.1 Privacy Challenges
2.2 Privacy Awareness Mechanisms
General Privacy Information
Privacy Information on Installed Devices
2.3 Summary and Limitations
3 Design Space
3.1 Contextual Factors
3.2 Privacy-Relevant Information
Content
Availability and Output
4 Sample Scenarios
4.1 Privacy-Relevant Information for Purchase Decisions
4.2 Carrying and Consulting Privacy-Relevant Information on Demand
4.3 Providing Privacy-Relevant Information and Guidance In Situ
5 Directions for Future Research
5.1 Amount of Information
5.2 Contextualize and Adapt
5.3 Enabling Control
6 Summary and Conclusion
References
Challenges, Conflicts, and Solution Strategies for the Introduction of Corporate Data Protection Measures
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
2.1 Technology Introduction and Acceptance
2.2 Usable Security and Usable Privacy
3 Digital Transformation as a Holistic Challenge
4 Challenges in the Operational Introduction of Data Protection Measures in Companies
4.1 Lack of Considering the Interactions of the Spheres
4.2 Exploiting the Gray Areas of Data Protection
4.3 Data Protection Measures Counteracting Privacy
5 Operationalization in Practice
6 Summary
References
Data Cart: A Privacy Pattern for Personal Data Management in Organizations
1 Introduction
2 Background
2.1 GDPR Principles
2.2 Privacy and Data Protection by Design
2.3 Privacy (Design) Patterns
Design Patterns
Privacy Pattern Collections
Privacy Design Strategies and Tactics
Patterns for Business Processes and Workflows
Usable Privacy and Interaction Patterns
3 Privacy Pattern Development
3.1 User-Centered Design Study
3.2 Data Processing Employee Requirements
4 The Data Cart Privacy Pattern
4.1 Process Flow Model
4.2 Interaction Concept
5 Data Cart Evaluation Results
5.1 Metaphor and Concept Understanding
5.2 Data Protection Properties of Data Cart
5.3 Limitations and Open Issues
6 Conclusion
References
Index