Human Factors in Aviation and Aerospace

Front Cover
Human Factors in Aviation and Aerospace
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Chapter 1 Human factors in aviation and aerospace: An overview
Introduction
Progress since the previous edition
A glance ahead
Next generation is on the horizon
Aerospace and civilian space flight
Human factors in aviation: This edition
References
Chapter 2 Aviation safety culture: A historical perspective
National culture, organizational culture, and safety culture
Geert Hofstede
Edgar Schein
James Reason
Managed safety, controlled safety, and the “Safety Ladder”
Safety cultures in action
Conclusion
Conflict of interest
References
Chapter 3 High-reliability organizations invest in resilience
The beginnings of HRO research
Findings of the original HRO group
Mindfulness
Reliability and safety
Simplicity and complexity
Ensuring resilience in high-reliability organizations
High resilience organizations
References
Chapter 4 New teams on the flight deck: Humans and context-sensitive information automation
Introduction
Missed approach
CSIA functionality and design: An overview
Timeliness of information
Information sources
Resilience
Constraints
Human-CSIA teams
Team orientation
Interdependent agents
Function allocation and team adaptability
Mutual trust
Communication
Pushing and pulling information
Shared mental models
Mutual performance monitoring
Backup behavior
Team leadership
Current approaches to context sensitivity in automated systems
Future directions and research needs
CSIA design and functionality
Technology capabilities
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5 Information processing in aviation
Introduction
What is human information processing?
Human information transformation and computation
Impact of the technological evolution in aviation on human information processing
Basic human performance in aviation
Perception
Manual control
Control order, lag and gain
Control loop input and bandwidth
Cross coupling
Lag, gain, and instability
Three solutions
Communication
Speech perception: Bottom-up and top-down processing
Working memory: The close relation to auditory perception
Automation in communications: Controller—Pilot data link (CPDL)
Performance, mental workload, and situation awareness
Performance speed and accuracy
Speed-accuracy trade-off
Mental workload and situation awareness
Higher-order cognitive processing
Attention and multitasking
Concurrent multitasking
Sequential multitasking
Summary
Expertise
Nature of expertise
Brain changes with expertise
Vast amount of domain-specific and highly organized knowledge
Highly developed skills and strategies
Expertise in complex, dynamic environments
Implications of the nature of expertise
Decision making
Information processing operations
Adaptive decision making in a dynamic environment
Two decision systems
Improving decision making and aviation safety
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Pilot attention and perception and spatial cognition
Visual attention
Visual scanning and supervisory control
Attentional tunneling
Expertise and pilot visual attention
Noticing and detection
The NSEEV model of noticing
From noticing and detection to decision: Signal detection theory
Alert and alarm systems
Visual search
N: Number of nontarget elements
Target salience
Clutter
Attention and display layout: The proximity compatibility principle
Spatial proximity
Nonspatial proximity
From attention to perception: Visual and vestibular illusions
Top down vs bottom up processing
Visual illusions
Vestibular illusions and spatial disorientation
Spatial cognition
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Managing workload, performance, and situation awareness in aviation systems
Introduction
Piloting
Air traffic control
Uninhabited aerial systems
Aims of the chapter
Workload
Workload and performance
Workload in air traffic control
Measuring workload
Workload: Summary
Situation awareness
Piloting, air traffic control and situation awareness
Measuring situation awareness
Situation awareness: Summary
Managing workload and situation awareness
A theoretical model of workload-situation awareness management
Practical challenges and conclusions
Disassociations between workload, situation awareness and performance
The importance of within-person level of analyses
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 8 Team dynamics in the air: A review of team research relevant to aviation
Teamwork in aviation: A multiteam system
Considerations for aviation teamwork training
Team self-maintenance
Psychological safety
Automation as a team member
Summary
Future directions for aviation research and crew resource management
Decision-making in the cockpit
Well-being in aviation
Multiteam systems in aviation
CRM training and evaluation
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest
References
Chapter 9 Human factors of flight training and simulation
Situation awareness
Expertise
Errors
Expert performance and decision making
Deliberate practice
Automation
Training and automation
Trust in automation
Automation complacency
Adaptive automation and adaptable automation
Automation case study: Boeing 737 MAX accidents
Knowledge and skill acquisition
Part-task training
Part-task training and holding patterns
Simulation and training
Types of modern flight simulation devices
Benefits of flight simulation
Extended reality
Flight simulation effectiveness
Fidelity
Immersion
Presence
Operator buy-in
Challenges of flight simulation
Teaching, learning, and assessment strategies
Demonstration and development
Assessment/objectives
Proficiency/expertise/meta-awareness
Crew resource management
Future travels
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10 Human factors in aviation accident investigations
Introduction
Development of an investigative agency in the United States
Why do we need human factors in accident investigations?
Impact of human factors investigations on aviation safety
Evolution of human factors models in investigations
Human factors issues in investigations
Data collection
When is enough enough?
Preventing future accidents
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 11 Cognitive architectures for human factors in aviation and aerospace
Introduction
What are cognitive architectures?
Key publications
Review reports
Articles and chapters
Comparisons
AFRL’s AMBR model comparison project
NASA’s HPM project
Collections
Cognitive architectures: AFRL advances in cognitive architectures and applications for improved human performance and learn ...
Performance and learning models (PALM) research
Human-machine colearning
Vision inference action
Science of understanding
Cognitive modeling
Teachable models for training
Multiscale models of cognitive performance
Concluding thoughts on cognitive architecture and applied cognitive modeling efforts at AFRL
Considerations, challenges, and recommendations for the future of cognitive architecture research
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
Chapter 12 Aircrew fatigue, sleep need, and circadian rhythmicity
Introduction
Biological regulation of sleep, alertness and performance
Circadian system
Homeostatic sleep drive
Interaction of sleep and circadian influences
Work factors in relation to biological control of fatigue
Sleep need
Extended hours of wakefulness
Impact of circadian phase
Influence of workload on fatigue
Individual differences in response to fatigue
Environmental factors
Noise
Heat
Chemicals
Stress
Operational relevance
Short haul operations
Long haul operations
Ultra long range operations
History of fatigue risk management
Stand-alone approaches to operational management of fatigue
Countermeasure application
Fatigue management systems
Fatigue prediction: Biomathematical scheduling tools
Fatigue measurement and monitoring: Human centered technologies
Fatigue intervention
Scientific-based fatigue management: A standardized approach
Fatigue risk management programs (FRMP and FRMS)
FAA FRMP and FRMS efforts: Part 117 regulation
Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Aviation displays: Design for automation and new display formats
Introduction
Display considerations for automation
The Boeing 737-Max8 accidents of 2018 and 2019
Information integrity
Ease-of-use
Communication style
Transparency
Level of control
Summary
Displays for remote operators
Multimodal displays
Displays for sense and avoid
Summary
Heads-up displays (HUDs)
Advantages of HUDs
Head- or helmet mounted displays
Monocular HMD
Binocular HMD
Future HMD
Commercial aviation and head-worn displays (HWDs)
Increased realism and compellingness
Summary
References
Chapter 14 Automated systems in civil transport airplanes: Human factors considerations
Introduction
Background and some history
Types of automated systems
Benefits and vulnerabilities of automated systems
Pilot reliance on automated systems
Autoflight mode confusion
Flight management system programming and use
Use of automated systems can reduce workload during normal operations but may add complexity and workload during demanding ...
Lack of practice can result in degradation of basic knowledge and skills
Information automation—Potential issues
Evolution of selected human-factors-related regulations affecting flight deck automation
Additional human factors considerations in automated systems
Levels of automation” is a useful concept for communicating ideas about automated systems, but can be hard to put into pra ...
Function allocation and the replacement myth
Automated systems and the need for pilot training
Importance of monitoring
Use an operational policy for flight path management policy, instead of automation policy
Pilots (and controllers) mitigate safety and operational risk on a regular and ongoing basis
Summary and concluding remarks
References
Chapter 15 Remotely piloted aircraft systems
Introduction
The accident record
A landmark RPAS accident
Design considerations for the remote pilot station
Reduced sensory cues
Lack of “out the window” view and collision avoidance
Threat and error management with reduced sensory cues
Physical environment of the remote pilot station
Maintaining focus
Maintenance while missions are underway
Control via radio link
Management of control link
Management of lost link procedure
Flight termination
Transitions: Handovers, pilot control transfers, and link switches
Control of multiple RPA
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 General aviation
Personal flying
Flight experience
Total flight time
Relevance of experience
Practice time
Time in type
Recent flight experience
Certificates and ratings
Age
Advanced cockpit systems
Awareness
Workload
Error
Alerts and alarms
Primary/secondary task inversion
Startle
Mistrust
Skill atrophy
Judgment, risk, and decision making
Flight training
Teaching and learning decision-making skills
Formal models
Cases
Cockpit automation and levels of understanding
Role of simulators
Electronic learning
Social learning (hangar-flying)
Abstract principles vs. concrete examples
Flight instructors
Part 61 vs. Part 141
Business flying
Fatigue
Hunger
Decision making
Training
Afterword
References
Chapter 17 An introduction to air traffic control and the application of human factors
Introduction
An introduction to air traffic management and air traffic control
An overview of air traffic management
Key concepts in air traffic control
Air traffic controllers
The purpose of air traffic control
Airspace classification
Airspace design and sectors
Air traffic control service provision types
Tower control
TRACON (“approach”) control
En-route control 
Traffic flow management
The controllers’ workstation
An end-to-end example of a commercial flight
The air traffic controller: Understanding ATCO performance and performance influencing factors—Insights from the human fact ...
Performance-influencing factors and the association with controller performance
Mental workload in ATC
Underload and overload
Fatigue
Stress
Vigilance
Situation awareness
A note on factor relationships
Human factors contributions to ATC: Examples from the operational environment
Vignette 1: Development and validation of a new decision support tool for en-route controllers: The importance of including ...
Vignette 2: Identification and prevention of performance decline in ATCOs during operations
Vignette 3: A risk assessment of the potential impact of new entrants on ATCOs, and the impact on future design
Future directions and challenges for human factors in ATC
New entrants
Urban air mobility
Trajectory based operations
Increasing automation
Conclusion
References
Further reading
Chapter 18 Maintenance human factors and flight safety
Introduction
Part 1: Building the foundation of maintenance human factors
Identifying human factors in the maintenance and inspection work domain
A focus on training
Maintenance resource management (MRM) training
Maintenance accident investigation
Organizational factors and safety culture
Organizational and oversight failure
Maintenance error analysis
Maintenance and the US national database
Government reviews: Maintenance human factors and aviation safety
Maintenance human factors in space operations
Key industry guidance
Part 2: Developing methods and tools to meet new challenges
NASA aviation safety program: Maintenance human factors
Identification of safety needs
Development of methods and tools
Development of human factors interventions
Validation and implementation of products
Part 3: Perennial issues and new challenges
FAA work on fatigue
Introduction
Fatigue risk management principles
Reduce fatigue
Reduce or capture fatigue-related errors
Minimize the consequences of fatigue-related errors
Management of fatigue risk interventions
Technology-driven changes in maintenance and inspection
Composite materials in aircraft primary structure
Sensors and structural health monitoring (SHM)
Summary
Maintenance error and safety of flight
Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 19 Spaceflight human factors: Enter the cosmos
Spaceflight human factors: Enter the cosmos
Autonomy and automation
Behavioral health and performance in spaceflight
Individual behavioral health and performance
Selection
Training
Fatigue and physical readiness
Team behavioral health and performance
Team composition
Team-supportive vehicle design and group living
Teamwork and the multi-team system
The future: Commercialization of space
Acknowledgments
Author contributions
References
Chapter 20 Human factors in general aviation weather
Introduction
GA weather accidents
Weather contributing factors
VFR to IMC
Pilot qualifications
Human information processing
Preflight planning
Summary
GA weather: Decision making biases, expertise, situation awareness, and risk
Decision making biases
Expertise and skill acquisition
Situational awareness
Aviation weather situation assessment measures
Aviation weather cue-based training
Risk assessment
Risk perception and risk tolerance
Conclusion
References
Chapter 21 Decision making in aviation
Introduction
Types of decision making
Analytical decision making
Intuitive decision making
Factors that influence decision making
Expertise
Time
Uncertainty
Additional factors
Heuristics and biases
Saliency bias
Anchoring/cue primacy heuristic
Cue-weighting heuristic
Representativeness heuristic
Availability heuristic
Overconfidence bias, confirmation bias and cognitive tunneling
Framing bias and sunk cost bias
Decision making under stress
Factors that make decision making stressful
Impact of stress on decision making
Decision making on the modern flight deck
Model of pilot decision making with conflicting information
Supporting the decision-making process
Supporting decision making through system design
Supporting decision making through training
Conclusion
References
Index
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