Human Biology

Contents......Page 8
IMPACTS, ISSUES: What Kind of World Do We Live In?......Page 27
1.1 The Characteristics of Life......Page 28
Humans are related to all other living things— and they have some distinctive characteristics......Page 29
Organisms are connected through the flow of energy and cycling of materials......Page 30
Science is a systematic study of nature......Page 32
Science never stops......Page 33
Evaluate the content of information......Page 34
Science has limits......Page 35
Emerging diseases present new challenges......Page 36
Antibiotics are a double-edged sword......Page 37
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Fearsome Fats......Page 41
Isotopes are varying forms of atoms......Page 42
2.2 Science Comes to Life How Much Are You Worth?......Page 43
Chemical bonds join atoms......Page 44
Atoms can combine into molecules......Page 45
In a covalent bond, atoms share electrons......Page 46
A hydrogen bond is a weak bond between polar molecules......Page 47
Water can absorb and hold heat......Page 48
2.6 Focus on Health How Antioxidants Protect Cells......Page 49
Acids give up H[sup(+)] and bases accept H[sup(+)]......Page 50
Buffers protect against shifts in pH......Page 51
Functional groups affect the chemical behavior of organic compounds......Page 52
Cells have chemical tools to assemble and break apart biological molecules......Page 53
Oligosaccharides are short chains of sugar units......Page 54
Polysaccharides are sugar chains that store energy......Page 55
Fats are energy-storing lipids......Page 56
Cholesterol and steroids are built from sterols......Page 57
The sequence of amino acids is a protein’s primary structure......Page 58
A protein may have more than one polypeptide chain......Page 60
Disrupting a protein’s shape denatures it......Page 61
Nucleic acids include DNA and the RNAs......Page 62
2.14 Focus on Our Environment Food Production and a Chemical Arms Race......Page 63
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Alcohol and Liver Cells......Page 67
Most cells have a large surface area compared to their volume......Page 68
Membranes enclose cells and organelles......Page 69
3.2 The Parts of a Eukaryotic Cell......Page 70
3.3 Science Comes to Life How Do We See Cells?......Page 71
Proteins carry out most of the functions of cell membranes......Page 72
3.5 Focus on Our Environment Deadly Water Pollution......Page 73
A nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus......Page 74
Events that begin in the nucleus continue to unfold in the cell cytoplasm......Page 75
Golgi bodies “finish, pack, and ship”......Page 76
A variety of vesicles move substances into and through cells......Page 77
ATP forms in an inner compartment of the mitochondrion......Page 78
3.9 The Cell’s Skeleton......Page 79
Water crosses membranes by osmosis......Page 80
Vesicles transport large solutes......Page 82
3.12 Focus on Health When Mitochondria Fail......Page 83
There are two main types of metabolic pathways......Page 84
To maintain homeostasis, the body controls the activity of enzymes......Page 85
Step 2: The Krebs cycle produces energy-rich transport molecules......Page 86
Step 3: Electron transport produces many ATP molecules......Page 87
3.15 Summary of Cellular Respiration......Page 88
Fats and proteins also provide energy......Page 89
IMPACTS, ISSUES: A Stem Cell Future?......Page 93
Glands develop from epithelium......Page 94
Cartilage, bone, adipose tissue, and blood are specialized connective tissues......Page 96
4.3 Muscle Tissue: Movement......Page 98
4.5 Focus on Health Replacing Tissues......Page 99
4.6 Cell Junctions: Holding Tissues Together......Page 100
Membranes in joints consist of connective tissue......Page 101
4.8 Organs and Organ Systems......Page 102
Epidermis and dermis are the skin’s two layers......Page 104
Skin disorders are common......Page 105
Negative feedback is the most common control mechanism in homeostasis......Page 106
Excess heat must be dissipated......Page 108
Several responses counteract cold......Page 109
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Creaky Joints......Page 113
A bone develops on a cartilage model......Page 114
Bone tissue is constantly “remodeled”......Page 115
Bones have several important functions......Page 116
Facial bones support and shape the face......Page 118
The ribs and sternum support and help protect internal organs......Page 119
The pectoral girdle and upper limbs provide flexibility......Page 120
The pelvic girdle and lower limbs support body weight......Page 121
5.5 Joints: Connections between Bones......Page 122
Bones break in various ways......Page 124
Genetic diseases, infections, and cancer all may affect the skeleton......Page 125
5.7 Connections The Skeletal System in Homeostasis......Page 126
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Pumping Up Muscles......Page 129
The three kinds of muscle have different structures and functions......Page 130
Many muscles are arranged as pairs or in groups......Page 132
Skeletal muscle includes “fast” and “slow” types......Page 133
A muscle contracts when its cells shorten......Page 134
Muscle cells shorten when actin filaments slide over myosin......Page 135
Neurons act on muscle cells at neuromuscular junctions......Page 136
Several factors determine the characteristics of a muscle contraction......Page 138
Tired muscles can’t generate much force......Page 139
Muscular dystrophies destroy muscle fibers......Page 140
Cancer may develop in muscle tissue......Page 141
6.8 Focus on Health Making the Most of Muscles......Page 142
6.9 Connections Muscle Tissue and the Muscular System in Homeostasis......Page 143
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Be Not Still, My Beating Heart!......Page 147
7.1 The Cardiovascular System: Moving Blood through the Body......Page 148
The cardiovascular system is linked to the lymphatic system......Page 149
In a “heartbeat,” the heart’s chambers contract, then relax......Page 150
In the systemic circuit, blood travels to and from tissues......Page 152
Blood from the digestive tract is shunted through the liver for processing......Page 153
The nervous system adjusts heart activity......Page 154
Blood exerts pressure against the walls of blood vessels......Page 155
Capillaries are specialized for diffusion......Page 156
Vessels help control blood pressure......Page 157
Some substances pass through “pores” in capillary walls......Page 158
Blood in capillaries flows onward to venules......Page 159
Arteries can clog or weaken......Page 160
A heart-healthy lifestyle may help prevent cardiovascular disease......Page 161
Inborn heart defects are fairly common......Page 162
7.10 Connections The Cardiovascular System and Blood in Homeostasis......Page 163
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Chemical Questions......Page 167
Red blood cells carry oxygen and CO[sub(2)]......Page 168
Platelets help clot blood......Page 169
What determines how much oxygen hemoglobin can carry?......Page 170
8.3 Making New Red Blood Cells......Page 171
Mixing incompatible blood types can cause the clumping called agglutination......Page 172
There are also many other markers on red blood cells......Page 174
Blood substitutes have pros and cons......Page 175
Factors in blood are one trigger for blood clotting......Page 176
The formation of a blood clot is a first step in healing wounds......Page 177
Mononucleosis and leukemias affect white blood cells......Page 178
Toxins can poison the blood......Page 179
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Frankie’s Wish......Page 181
White blood cells and their chemicals are the defenders in immune responses......Page 182
9.2 The Lymphatic System......Page 184
Lymphoid organs and lymphatic tissues are specialized for body defense......Page 185
9.4 Innate Immunity......Page 186
B cells and T cells attack invaders in different ways......Page 188
Antigen-presenting cells introduce antigens to T cells and B cells......Page 189
There are five classes of antibodies, each with a particular function......Page 190
9.7 Cell-Mediated Responses: Defending against Threats Inside Cells......Page 192
Cytotoxic T cells cause the body to reject transplanted tissue......Page 193
Immunization gives “borrowed” immunity......Page 194
Immunotherapies reinforce defenses......Page 195
In allergies, harmless substances provoke an immune attack......Page 196
Immune responses can be deficient......Page 197
HIV infection begins a fatal struggle......Page 198
Can drugs and vaccines be used to help fight HIV?......Page 199
Pathogens spread in four ways......Page 200
There are many public and personal strategies for preventing infection......Page 201
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Up in Smoke......Page 205
Airways are pathways for oxygen and carbon dioxide......Page 206
Lungs are elastic and provide a large surface area for gas exchange......Page 207
In gas exchange, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse down a concentration gradient......Page 208
Gas exchange “rules” change when oxygen is scarce......Page 209
When you breathe, air pressure gradients reverse in a cycle......Page 210
How much air is in a “breath”?......Page 211
Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier......Page 212
Hemoglobin and blood plasma both carry carbon dioxide......Page 213
Carbon dioxide is the main trigger for controls over the rate and depth of breathing......Page 214
Only minor aspects of breathing are under conscious control......Page 215
Irritants cause other disorders......Page 216
Apnea is a condition in which breathing controls malfunction......Page 217
Lung cancer is a major killer......Page 218
10.8 Connections The Respiratory System in Homeostasis......Page 219
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Food for Thought......Page 223
11.1 Overview of the Digestive System......Page 224
Homeostasis overview......Page 225
Enzymes in saliva begin the chemical digestion of food......Page 226
Swallowing has voluntary and involuntary phases......Page 227
11.3 The Stomach: Food Storage, Digestion, and More......Page 228
11.4 The Small Intestine: A Huge Surface for Digestion and Absorption......Page 229
The gallbladder stores bile......Page 230
The liver is a multipurpose organ......Page 231
Nutrients are released by chemical and mechanical means......Page 232
Simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed directly, but fats are absorbed in steps......Page 233
11.7 The Large Intestine......Page 234
11.8 How Control Systems Regulate Digestion......Page 235
Problems in the colon range from constipation to cancer......Page 236
Malabsorption disorders prevent nutrients from being absorbed......Page 237
Bacteria and other types of organisms can infect the GI tract......Page 238
11.11 Connections The Digestive System in Homeostasis......Page 239
Proteins are body-building nutrients......Page 240
There are several guidelines for healthy eating......Page 241
11.13 Vitamins and Minerals......Page 242
11.14 Food Energy and Body Weight......Page 244
Genes and activity levels affect weight......Page 245
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Truth in a Test Tube......Page 249
The body gains water from food and metabolic processes......Page 250
Solutes leave the ECF by urinary excretion, in sweat, and during breathing......Page 251
12.2 The Urinary System: Built for Filtering and Waste Disposal......Page 252
Special vessels transport blood to, in, and away from nephrons......Page 253
Next, reabsorption returns useful substances to the blood......Page 254
Urination is a controllable reflex......Page 255
Hormones control whether kidneys make urine that is concentrated or dilute......Page 256
A thirst center monitors sodium......Page 257
Various factors may cause serious acid–base imbalances......Page 258
12.6 Kidney Disorders......Page 259
Urinalysis provides a chemical snapshot of conditions in the body......Page 260
12.8 Connections The Urinary System in Homeostasis......Page 261
IMPACTS, ISSUES: In Pursuit of Ecstasy......Page 265
13.1 Neurons: The Communication Specialists......Page 266
13.2 Why Can Neurons Carry Signals?......Page 267
A neuron can’t “fire” again until ion pumps restore its resting potential......Page 268
Action potentials are “all-or-nothing”......Page 269
13.4 How Neurons Communicate......Page 270
Neurotransmitter molecules must be removed from the synapse......Page 271
Reflex arcs are the simplest nerve pathways......Page 272
In the brain and spinal cord, neurons interact in circuits......Page 273
13.6 Overview of the Nervous System......Page 274
Autonomic nerves are divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic groups......Page 276
The spinal cord links the PNS and the brain......Page 277
The brain is divided into a hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain......Page 278
Cerebrospinal fluid fills cavities and canals in the brain......Page 279
The cerebral cortex controls consciousness......Page 280
The limbic system governs emotions and more......Page 281
13.10 Memory......Page 282
13.11 Consciousness......Page 283
Infections and cancer inflame or destroy brain tissue......Page 284
Thinking is disrupted in autism and schizophrenia......Page 285
13.13 Focus on Health The Brain on “Mind-Altering” Drugs......Page 286
13.14 Connections The Nervous System in Homeostasis......Page 287
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Private Eyes......Page 291
14.1 Sensory Receptors and Pathways......Page 292
Pain is the perception of bodily injury......Page 294
Referred pain is a matter of perception......Page 295
Olfaction is the sense of smell......Page 296
14.4 Science Comes to Life Tasty Science......Page 297
Sensory hair cells are the key to hearing......Page 298
14.6 Balance: Sensing the Body’s Natural Position......Page 300
14.7 Disorders of the Ear......Page 301
The eye is built to detect light......Page 302
Eye muscle movements fine-tune the focus......Page 303
Visual pigments intercept light energy......Page 304
Signals move on to the visual cortex......Page 305
The eyes also are vulnerable to infections and cancer......Page 306
Medical technologies can remedy some vision problems and treat eye injuries......Page 307
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Hormones in the Balance......Page 311
Hormones are produced in small amounts and often interact......Page 312
Nonsteroid hormones act indirectly, by way of second messengers......Page 314
The posterior pituitary lobe releases ADH and oxytocin......Page 316
The anterior pituitary lobe makes hormones......Page 317
15.4 Hormones as Long-Term Controllers......Page 318
15.5 Growth Hormone Functions and Disorders......Page 319
Thyroid hormones affect metabolism, growth, and development......Page 320
PTH from the parathyroids is the main calcium regulator......Page 321
Hormones from the adrenal medulla help regulate blood circulation......Page 322
Long-term stress can damage health......Page 323
15.8 The Pancreas: Regulating Blood Sugar......Page 324
Low blood sugar threatens the brain......Page 325
The thymus, heart, and GI tract also produce hormones......Page 326
15.11 Connections The Endocrine System in Homeostasis......Page 327
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Fertility Plus......Page 331
Sperm form in testes......Page 332
Substances from seminal vesicles and the prostate gland help form semen......Page 333
Sperm form in seminiferous tubules......Page 334
Hormones control sperm formation......Page 335
During the menstrual cycle, an oocyte is released from an ovary......Page 336
Hormones guide ovulation......Page 338
The ovarian and menstrual cycles dovetail......Page 339
Intercourse can produce a fertilized egg......Page 340
16.6 Fertilization......Page 341
Surgery and barrier methods are the most effective options......Page 342
Abortion is highly controversial......Page 343
Assisted reproductive technologies include artificial insemination and IVF......Page 344
Gonorrhea may have no symptoms at first......Page 346
Syphilis eventually affects many organs......Page 347
Hepatitis can be sexually transmitted......Page 348
16.11 Focus on Health Eight Steps to Safer Sex......Page 349
Breast cancer is a major cause of death......Page 350
Testicular and prostate cancer affect men......Page 351
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Male or Female? Body or Genes?......Page 355
Next, cells become specialized......Page 356
Organs form by the process of morphogenesis......Page 357
Cleavage produces a multicellular embryo......Page 358
17.3 Focus on Health A Baby Times Two......Page 359
First, the basic body plan is established......Page 360
Next, organs develop and take on the proper shape and proportions......Page 361
The placenta is a pipeline for oxygen, nutrients, and other substances......Page 362
17.6 The First Eight Weeks: Human Features Appear......Page 364
The blood and circulatory system of a fetus have special features......Page 366
Labor has three stages......Page 368
Hormones also control milk production in a mother’s mammary glands......Page 369
Poor maternal nutrition puts a fetus at risk......Page 370
Drugs of all types may do harm......Page 371
17.10 Science Comes to Life Prenatal Diagnosis: Detecting Birth Defects......Page 372
Adulthood is also a time of bodily change......Page 373
Most other organ systems also decline......Page 374
Aging also alters the brain and senses......Page 375
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Henrietta’s Immortal Cells......Page 379
Having two sets of chromosomes makes a cell diploid......Page 380
Having only one set of chromosomes makes a cell haploid......Page 381
Spindles attach to chromosomes and move them......Page 382
18.3 The Cell Cycle......Page 383
Next comes metaphase......Page 384
Anaphase, then telophase follow......Page 385
18.5 How the Cytoplasm Divides......Page 386
18.6 Science Comes to Life Concerns and Controversies over Irradiation......Page 387
Meiosis leads to the formation of gametes......Page 388
18.8 A Visual Tour of the Stages of Meiosis......Page 390
Pieces of chromosomes may be exchanged......Page 392
Gametes also receive a random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes......Page 393
18.10 Meiosis and Mitosis Compared......Page 394
IMPACTS, ISSUES: The Color of Skin......Page 399
19.1 Basic Concepts of Heredity......Page 400
19.2 One Chromosome, One Copy of a Gene......Page 401
A Punnett square can be used to predict the result of a genetic cross......Page 402
A testcross also can reveal genotypes......Page 403
19.4 How Genes for Different Traits Are Sorted into Gametes......Page 404
One gene may affect several traits......Page 406
In codominance, more than one allele of a gene is expressed......Page 407
Polygenic traits come from several genes combined......Page 408
The environment can affect phenotypes......Page 409
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Menacing Genes......Page 413
Some traits often are inherited together because their genes are physically linked......Page 414
20.2 Science Comes to Life Picturing Chromosomes with Karyotypes......Page 415
Gender is a question of X or Y......Page 416
Some genes are expressed differently in males and females......Page 417
A pedigree shows genetic connections......Page 418
Genetic analysis may predict disorders......Page 419
Some disorders are due to dominant genes......Page 420
Some disorders are recessive X-linked traits......Page 422
Many factors complicate genetic analysis......Page 423
Various changes in a chromosome’s structure may cause a genetic disorder......Page 424
Nondisjunction also can change the number of sex chromosomes......Page 426
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Golden Rice, or “Frankenfood”?......Page 431
Chemical “rules” determine which nucleotide bases in DNA can pair up......Page 432
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides......Page 433
A mutation is a change in the sequence of a gene’s nucleotides......Page 434
21.3 DNA into RNA: The First Step in Making Proteins......Page 436
Gene transcription can be turned on or off......Page 437
Codons are mRNA “words” for building proteins......Page 438
tRNAs are ribosome building blocks......Page 439
21.6 The Three Stages of Translation......Page 440
Enzymes and plasmids from bacteria are basic tools......Page 442
PCR is a super-fast way to copy DNA......Page 443
Genome mapping provides basic biological information......Page 444
Mapping shows where genes are located......Page 445
Gene therapy results have been mixed......Page 446
Genetic analysis also is used to read DNA fingerprints......Page 447
21.11 Engineering Bacteria, Animals, and Plants......Page 448
Controversy swirls over cloning......Page 449
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Between You and Eternity......Page 453
Some tumors are cancer, others are not......Page 454
Cancer cells also do not divide normally......Page 455
Cancer usually involves several genes......Page 456
Other factors also may lead to cancer......Page 457
22.3 Focus on Environment Cancer Risk from Environmental Chemicals......Page 458
22.4 Some Major Types of Cancer......Page 459
Medical imaging can reveal the site and size of tumors......Page 460
Biopsy is the only sure way to diagnose cancer......Page 461
Chemotherapy and radiation kill cancer cells......Page 462
Good lifestyle choices can limit cancer risk......Page 463
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Time on Your Mind......Page 467
23.1 A Little Evolutionary History......Page 468
Genetic differences produce variation......Page 469
Chance can also change a gene pool......Page 470
Speciation can be gradual or sudden......Page 471
The fossil record is spotty......Page 472
Biogeography provides other clues......Page 473
Development patterns also provide clues......Page 474
In extinction, species are lost forever......Page 476
In adaptive radiation, new species arise......Page 477
Five trends mark human evolution......Page 478
Is Homo sapiens“out of Africa”?......Page 480
Biological molecules paved the way for cells to evolve......Page 482
IMPACTS, ISSUES: Change in the Air......Page 487
24.1 Some Basic Principles of Ecology......Page 488
Food chains and webs show who eats whom......Page 490
Consumers subtract energy from ecosystems......Page 492
24.4 Introduction to Biogeochemical Cycles......Page 493
24.5 The Water Cycle......Page 494
24.6 Cycling Chemicals from Earth’s Crust......Page 495
24.7 The Carbon Cycle......Page 496
24.8 The Nitrogen Cycle......Page 498
IMPACTS, ISSUES: So Long, Blue Bayou......Page 501
The human population has grown rapidly......Page 502
Population statistics help predict growth......Page 503
Some natural population controls are related to population density......Page 504
Pollution can result from human activities......Page 505
25.4 Assaults on Our Air......Page 506
Air pollution has damaged the ozone layer......Page 507
25.5 Global Warming and Climate Change......Page 508
What will climate change mean for us?......Page 509
Water issues affect 75 percent of humans......Page 510
Managing solid wastes is another challenge......Page 511
Feeding and housing billions of humans requires land and other scarce resources......Page 512
Deforestation has global repercussions......Page 513
There are growing issues with fossil fuels......Page 514
What about nuclear power?......Page 515
Marine resources are being overharvested......Page 516
25.10 Science Comes to Life Biological Magnification......Page 517
Appendix I: Concepts in Cell Metabolism......Page 521
Appendix II: Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 528
Appendix III: Units of Measure......Page 529
Appendix IV: Answers to Genetics Problems......Page 530
Appendix V: Answers to Self-Quizzes......Page 532
Appendix VI: A Plain English Map of the Human Chromosomes and Some Associated Traits......Page 533
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