How People Learn in Informal Science Environments?

Contents
Editor and Contributors
1 Introduction: Learning Theory and Its Relationship to Research in Informal Science Learning Environments
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Defining Informal Science Education
1.3 Defining Informal Science Learning
1.4 Learning Theory and Informal Science Education
1.5 Chapters
1.5.1 Part I Community of Practice
1.5.2 Part II Critical Theory
1.5.3 Part III Identity Theory
1.5.4 Part IV Sociocultural, Socioscientific, and Social Entrepreneurship
1.5.5 Part V Systems Theory
1.5.6 Part VI Expeditionary, Place-Based, Variation Theory
1.5.7 Part VII Theory Development
References
Part I Community of Practice
2 Re-examining Wenger’s Community of Practice Theoretical Framework: Exploring Youth Learning in Science Research
2.1 Examining Assumptions in Community of Practice Theory
2.1.1 Community of Practice as a Learning Theory
2.2 Communities of Practice Theory in Service of Instrument Development: A Focus on Identity, Practices, and Belonging
2.2.1 How a Community of Practice Lens Helped Highlight Important Features of the Mentoring Program
2.3 Interrogating Roles at the Periphery
2.3.1 Examining Two Youth Cases from the “Outlier” or “Peripheral Participation” Group
2.3.2 Broader Implications for the Field/Next Steps
References
3 The ‘Science Experience’: Using Situated Learning Theory to Connect Science in Everyday Life for Year 9 and Year 10 Students in Regional Australia Through an Outside-the-Classroom Science Program
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Introduction to Literature
3.2.1 Social Constructivism in Educational Contexts
3.2.2 Situated Learning and Communities of Practice
3.2.3 Authentic Learning Experiences in STEM Education
3.3 Application in the Literature
3.4 The ‘Science Experience’ Case Study
3.4.1 Outside-the-Classroom Learning Experiences
3.4.2 The Science Experience Gladstone
3.4.3 Science Curriculum
3.4.4 Data Collection and Analysis
3.4.5 Findings
3.5 Importance to Research
3.5.1 The Future of the Science Experience
3.5.2 Authentic Learning Experiences as a New Learning Model
3.5.3 Notions of Learning
References
Part II Critical Theory
4 Activity Theory in Informal Contexts: Contradictions Across Learning Contexts
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Activity Systems
4.1.2 Contradictions
4.2 Expansive Learning
4.3 CHAT in Practice
4.3.1 Case 1: What Are We Supposed to Do Here?
4.3.2 Case 2: A Tale of Two Shirts
4.3.3 Case 3: Negotiating Equity Across Activity Systems
4.3.4 What Do These Three Cases Have in Common; How Do They Work Together?
4.4 Discussion/Importance to the Field
References
5 Gender Inclusion/Exclusion in Science Exhibitions: Theoretical Framework and Practical Implications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Gender and Gendered Contexts
5.3 Gender in Science Museums
5.3.1 The Cultural/Societal Dimension
5.3.2 The Institutional Dimension
5.3.3 The Interactional Dimension
5.3.4 The Individual Dimension
5.4 Summary
5.5 Discussion
5.5.1 Conditions and Constraints Outside the Science Museum
5.5.2 Conditions and Constraints Inside the Science Museum
5.5.3 Conditions and Constraints in Interactions Between Exhibitions and Visitors
5.6 Final Words
References
6 Engaging with the Political in Learning: Possible Futures, Learning and Agency in the Anthropocene
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Application in the Literature
6.3 Envisioning and Building Concrete Utopias to Promote Student Learning and Agency
6.3.1 Bicycles on the Move! Changing the Paradigm of City Planning
6.3.2 Designing Alternative Forms of Food Production
6.4 Importance to Research
References
7 Critical Scientific Literacy Approach and Critical Theories in the Learning of Science Outside the Classroom
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Critical and Post-critical Theories
7.1.2 A Complement of Critical Theories: Critical Scientific Literacy as an Approach to Tackle the Climate Emergency
7.2 Critical Theories in Teaching and Learning Outside the Classroom
7.2.1 Outdoor Science Education: Experiences from a Critical Theory Approach and Vision III of Scientific Literacy (Lorena)
7.2.2 Analysis of Critical Science Teaching Experiences Outside the Classroom of Teachers Participating in a Continuous Training Program from a Critical Perspective (Corina)
7.2.3 An Example of Teaching and Learning Science Outside the Classroom from Critical Theories (Gonzalo)
7.3 Importance to Research
References
Part III Identity Theory
8 Playing to Become a Science Person: The Application of Play and Identity Theories in Two Out-of-School Settings
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Application in the Literature
8.2.1 Historical
8.2.2 Contemporary Applications
8.3 CSL in Two Contexts Beyond Schooling
8.3.1 Play and Identity Development Intertwine
8.4 Importance to Research: The Essential Role of Continual Science Learning in Expanding Possibilities Beyond Schooling
8.4.1 Learning Science: Making a Choice
8.4.2 Learning Science: Intergenerational, Trustful, Flexible
8.4.3 Science Learning Within a Cultural Context; Imitating and Preparing
8.4.4 Continual Science Learning Intertwines Play and Identity Development Theories as Adaptive Strategies
8.5 Summary: The Biology of Science Learning Helps to Explain the Theoretical Overlap
References
9 A Mobile Theory of Learning and Identity in and Through Relations of Dignity: A Research Framing for Research Outside the Classroom
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Vignette: A Walking Visit of the Botanical Garden
9.1.2 Interpretation of Vignette
9.2 A Brief Synopsis of the Current Literature on Learning Outside the Classroom
9.3 Mobile Theory of Learning and Identity in Action
9.3.1 Example 1. Navigating Worlds—Family Cooking Afterschool Activity
9.4 Example 2. Youths’ Learning Pathways
9.4.1 Case Study 1: Saashi
9.4.2 Case Study 2: Alexi
9.5 Importance to Research
References
10 Application of the Contextual Model of Learning and Situated Identity Model in Informal STEM Learning Research
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Contextual Model of Learning
10.2.1 The Personal Context
10.2.2 The Sociocultural Context
10.2.3 The Physical Context
10.2.4 Other Factors
10.3 The Situated Identity Model
10.4 Prior Application of the Models
10.4.1 Contextual Model of Learning
10.4.2 Situated Identity Model
10.5 Why Zoos and Aquariums Matter Study
10.5.1 Full Visit Cycle
10.5.2 Theoretical Framing
10.5.3 Study Design
10.5.4 Study Findings
10.5.5 Discussion
10.6 Importance to Research
References
11 Leveraging Intersectionality and Positionality in Praxis-Oriented Teacher Learning
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Theories
11.2.1 Intersectional Identities
11.2.2 Positionality-Positioning Theory
11.3 Framework/Conceptual Links
11.3.1 Persons in Structures of Social Practice
11.4 Teaching and Learning Context
11.5 Teaching and Learning Approach
11.5.1 Positionality Vignette: Susan
11.5.2 Positionality Vignette: Mary
11.6 Discussion
References
12 Identity Construction in Informal Learning Environments: Applying Socio-cultural Situative Theory Through Linguistic Ethnographic Microanalysis
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Theoretical Framework: Socio-cultural Situative Identity Theory
12.2 Application of Socio-cultural Identity Theory in Literature on Informal Learning Environments
12.3 Illustrative Case Study Excerpts: Applying Socio-cultural Identity Theory Through Linguistic Ethnographic Microanalysis
12.3.1 Case Study 1: The (Re)Construction of Students' Science Identities in School Visits ao a Science Museum
12.3.2 Case Study 2: Identity Work in Family Everyday Life
12.3.3 Case Study 3: Science Teachers’ Identity Negotiation Vis-À-Vis Out-of-Classroom Teaching
12.4 The Affordances of Applying Situative Socio-cultural Identity Theory Through Linguistic Ethnographic Microanalysis
References
Part IV Sociocultural, Socioscientific, and Social Entrepreneurship
13 Sociocultural Theory: Intergenerational (Family) Sociocultural Dialogic Patterns and Spaces at an Aquarium Stingray Touch Tank
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Intergenerational Groups
13.2 Application in the Literature
13.3 Aquarium Study
13.3.1 Introduction
13.3.2 Methodology
13.3.3 Results
13.4 Relating the Results to Sociocultural Framework: Sociocultural Dialogic Space and Patterns
13.5 Implications for Research in Informal Learning Contexts
13.6 Importance of Sociocultural Theory
References
14 Socioscientific Issues and the Potential for Fostering Engagement Through Exhibits
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 SSI and Exhibits
14.2 The Socioscientific Issues Framework
14.2.1 Design Elements
14.2.2 Learner Experiences
14.2.3 Teacher Attributes
14.2.4 Classroom Environment
14.2.5 Peripheral Influences
14.2.6 Adapting the SSI Framework for ISI Exhibit Design
14.3 Application in the Literature
14.4 Exploring the SSIF in Aquarium Exhibits
14.4.1 In-Person Exhibits About Climate Change
14.4.2 Virtual Exhibits About Climate Change
14.4.3 Interpretations of a Socioscientific Issue Exhibit
14.5 Importance to the Research
References
15 Complementing Informal STEM Education with Social Entrepreneurship
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Learning Theory and Application in Literature
15.3 Example of Author Use
15.4 Importance to Research
15.5 Conclusion
References
Part V Systems Theory
16 Bringing Barad into Outdoor Learning: A Reflective Case Study Concerning Quadrats and Agential Cuts in Ecology Education
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Application to the Literature
16.2.1 Scientific Spaces
16.2.2 Quadrats in Ecology
16.2.3 Boundary Crossing and Boundary Objects
16.2.4 Baradian Thinking and the Quadrat
16.3 Understanding the Use of Quadrats Through Baradian Thinking
16.3.1 Development of Our Thinking
16.3.2 The Toothpick Safari Study
16.4 Importance to Research
References
17 General Systems Theory and Boundary Crossing: Exploring the Relationship Between Zoo Educators and Elementary Educators
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Formal and Informal Educator Relationships
17.1.2 General Systems Theory
17.1.3 System Concepts
17.2 Example Study—Zoo
17.2.1 Literature Review
17.2.2 Methodology
17.3 Discussion
17.4 Applying Systems Theory
References
Part VI Expeditionary, Place-Based, Variation Theory
18 Connecting the History of Science to the Holocaust Through Expeditionary Learning
18.1 Expeditionary Learning
18.2 Description of the Course
18.3 Course Materials and Analyses
18.4 Results
18.5 Conclusions
Appendix
References
19 Fostering Bedouin Students’ Sense of Place in the Light of Place-Based Education and Third-Space Theory
19.1 Introduction
19.2 What is ‘Sense of Place’ and Why Is It Important?
19.3 The Relationship Between Sense of Place and Place-Based Education
19.4 The Bedouins and Their Relationship with Place
19.5 How Do Bedouin Children Understand and Experience Their Environment? Developing Research Tools in the ‘Third Space’
19.5.1 Stage 1—Creating a Bank of Statements
19.5.2 Stage 2—Preliminary Testing of the Students’ Understanding of the Statements
19.5.3 Stage 3—Consultation with Experts
19.5.4 Stage 4—Revision of Statements Based on the Results of Stages 2 and 3
19.5.5 Stage 5—Testing the Revised Questionnaire
19.5.6 Stage 6—Readjustment of Illustrations and Statements
19.5.7 Stage 7—Adding a Formal ‘Explanations’ Section to the Questionnaire
19.6 The Hebron Stream Study Unit: An Authentic Place-Based Program Relevant to the Environmental, Social, and Cultural Issues That Concern These Students’ Relationship With Their Place
19.6.1 Before and After—Assessing the Program’s Influence
19.7 Discussion
References
20 Application of Variation Theory to Zoo Education: Case Study of Immersive Habitat Classrooms
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Variation Theory
20.1.2 History and Development of Variation Theory
20.2 Variation Theory of Learning
20.2.1 Object of Learning
20.2.2 Critical Aspects and Critical Features
20.2.3 Perspectives of Objects of Learning
20.2.4 Differentiation and Discernment
20.2.5 Patterns of Variation
20.3 Why is Variation Theory Useful?
20.3.1 Use for Teachers in General
20.3.2 Use for Teachers in Out-of-School Settings
20.4 Application in the Literature
20.4.1 Preschool Forest Outings
20.4.2 Variation Theory in Teaching Science and Mathematics
20.5 Example—Science Learning at Nambaroo Zoo
20.5.1 Overview of Case Study
20.5.2 Preliminary Analysis
20.5.3 Variation Theory Analysis
20.5.4 Outcome of the Analysis
20.6 Importance to Research
20.6.1 Zoo Educator Benefit
20.6.2 Use of the Theory as a Research Lens
20.7 Conclusion
References
Part VII Theory Development
21 Developing Natural History Museum Object-Based Inquiry for Museum’s Group Visitors
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Literature Review
21.2.1 Object-Based Activity Model (OBAM)
21.2.2 Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (PSHG) Conceptual Change Model
21.2.3 Personal Awareness of Science and Technology (PAST) Model
21.2.4 Predict-Observe-Explain (POE)
21.3 Methodology
21.3.1 Setting
21.3.2 Case Study 1: The Cephalopod Family
21.3.3 Transforming Linear Lecture to POE Modular
21.3.4 Case Study 2: Inquiring About the Ancient Life
21.4 Discussion
21.4.1 The POE Strategy Provides a Pattern for Recognizing Visitors’ Thinking and Giving Them Adequate Feedback
21.4.2 The PSHG and PAST Models Provide a Perspective to Check if the Educational Program Created an Appropriate Situation for Learning
21.4.3 Object-Centered Learning in Future Museums
References
22 Merging Three Learning Theories to Understand How Learning Outside the Classroom Institutions Learn Themselves
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Application in the Literature
22.2.1 Communities of Practice
22.2.2 Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
22.2.3 Organisational Learning
22.3 The BigPicnic Analytical Framework
22.3.1 Setting the Scene
22.3.2 The Big Picnic Analytical Framework
22.3.3 Analytical Methods
22.3.4 Examples of Findings
22.4 Importance to Research
References
23 “Grilled is Better Than Fried Chicken.”: Exploring a Participant Model for Designing and Evaluating Children’s Museum Health-Related Cooking Classes
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Relevant Literature
23.2.1 Healthy Cooking Classes for Children
23.2.2 Museum Cooking Programs for Children
23.2.3 Aims and Significance
23.3 Conceptual Framework
23.3.1 Methods
23.3.2 Setting and Cooking Classes
23.3.3 Participants
23.3.4 Data Collection
23.3.5 Data Analysis
23.4 Results
23.4.1 Photo-Elicitation
23.4.2 Photo-Elicitation Interviews
23.4.3 Health Promotion Outcome
23.4.4 Intermediate Health Outcomes
23.4.5 Health and Social Outcome
23.5 Limitations
23.6 Discussion
23.6.1 Social Interactions
23.6.2 Participant Model for Health-Related Cooking Classes
23.6.3 Applying the Participant Model for Health-Related Cooking Classes
23.7 Conclusions
23.7.1 Translation to Health Education Practice
References
24 Adaptation of Constructivist Learning and Teaching Models for Non-formal Science Education Research
24.1 From the Constructivist Learning Theory to Models of Teaching–Learning-Interaction
24.1.1 Criteria for Teaching–Learning Models
24.2 Combination of the Offer-Usage Model and the Model of Design-Based Research (Used in Study No. 1)—And Their Application in the Literature
24.3 The Model of Educational Reconstruction as a Genuine Subject-Matter Education Model (Used in Studies No. 2 and No. 3)—And Its Application in the Literature
24.4 Examples of the Application of Science-Education-Research Models to Non-formal Learning Environments
24.4.1 The Offer-Usage Model in a Study to Investigate the Cognitive and Motivational Dynamics in Out-of-School Student Laboratories (Study No. 1)
24.4.2 Model of Educational Reconstruction in a Study to Develop an Exhibition on the Physics of Coastal Dynamics and the Exploration of Learner Perspectives (Study No. 2)
24.4.3 Model of Educational Reconstruction as a Framework to Study Students Learning Through Exhibits of a Science Center (Study No. 3)
24.5 Importance to Research
References
25 In Search of an Articulated and Coherent Theoretical Framework to Inform Research and Evaluation of Learning in Science Centers: A Tale of Two Research Challenges
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Applications in the Literature
25.2.1 Constructivism
25.2.2 Experiential Learning
25.2.3 Sociocultural and Emotional Theories of Learning
25.3 Examples of Author Use
25.3.1 Application 1: Small Science Center Research Project
25.3.2 Application 2: Large Science Center Research Project
25.4 Learning Characteristics and Influences on Learning
25.4.1 Learning Characteristics and Influences on Learning Coding Categories with Sub-categories
25.4.2 Quick Descriptions of Main Categories of Learning Characteristics and Influences on Learning, with Examples
25.4.3 Influences on Learning (Affective Aspects, Sociocultural Aspects, and Operational and Mechanical)
25.4.4 Sample of Literature for Recognizing Behaviors Characteristic of, and Influences on, Learning
25.5 Importance to Research
References
Index