Herbal Biomolecules in Healthcare Applications

Front Cover
Herbal Biomolecules in Healthcare Applications
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Foreword by Bharat B. Aggarwal
Foreword by Satyajit D. Sarker
Foreword by Rob Verpoorte
References
Preface
1 Introduction to herbal biomolecules
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Herbal biomolecules
1.2.1 Alkaloids
1.2.2 Glycosides
1.2.3 Terpinoids
1.2.4 Volatile oils or essential oils
1.2.5 Flavonoids
1.2.6 Coumarins
1.2.7 Carbohydrates
1.3 Therapeutic activities of herbal biomolecules
1.3.1 Anticancer activity of herbal biomolecules
1.3.2 Antidiabetic activity of herbal biomolecules
1.3.3 Immunomodulatory effect of herbal biomolecules
1.3.4 Wound healing property of herbal biomolecules
1.3.5 Antimicrobial activity of herbal biomolecules
1.4 Standardization of herbal biomolecules
1.5 Regulatory consideration
1.6 Future prospective and challenges
References
Further reading
2 Extraction of herbal biomolecules
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conventional extraction techniques
2.2.1 Maceration
2.2.2 Percolation
2.2.3 Soxhlet extraction
2.2.4 Miscellaneous conventional extraction techniques
2.2.4.1 Reflux extraction
2.2.4.2 Infusion and decoction
2.3 Modern Methods of Extraction
2.3.1 Pressurized or accelerated solvent extraction
2.3.2 Microwave-assisted extraction
2.3.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
2.3.4 Supercritical fluid extraction
2.3.5 Enzyme-assisted extraction
2.3.6 Pulsed electric field extraction
2.4 Conclusion
References
3 Purification of herbal biomolecules
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Purification of herbal biomolecules
3.3 Volatile and nonvolatile compound extraction from herbal plant extract and its identification
3.4 Bioassay-guided isolation
3.5 Solvent–solvent extraction method by using separating funnel for the bioactive compound isolation
3.6 Identification of functional groups in crude extracts using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
3.7 Medium-pressure liquid chromatography
3.8 LC-ESI-MS/MS QTOF analysis or identification of bioactive compound
3.9 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of bioactive compounds present in plants extracts
3.10 Preparative high-performance liquid chromatography analysis
3.11 Identification and structure elucidation by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
3.12 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
4 Chemistry of herbal biomolecules
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Primary metabolite-based biomolecules
4.2.1 Carbohydrates
4.2.1.1 Classification of carbohydrates
4.2.2 Xylans and pectins
4.2.3 Oils
4.2.3.1 Essential oils
4.2.3.2 Nonessential oils
4.2.4 Resins and balsams
4.2.4.1 Resin constituents
4.2.4.2 Types of resins
4.2.5 Plant hormones and growth factors
4.2.5.1 Classification and their uses
4.3 Secondary metabolites
4.3.1 Alkaloids
4.3.1.1 Classification established upon the molecular precursor and biological origin
4.3.1.2 Classification based upon the structure of the ring
4.3.2 Glycosides
4.3.2.1 Phenolic glycosides
4.3.2.2 Coumarin glycosides and chromone glycosides
4.3.2.3 Flavonoid glycosides
4.3.2.4 Anthraquinone glycosides
4.3.2.5 Saponin glycosides
4.4 Conclusion
References
5 Variation of biomolecules in plant species
5.1 Introduction—primary and secondary metabolites
5.2 Variations of biomolecules in the herbal healthcare context
5.3 Factors affecting the variation of biomolecules in plant species
5.3.1 Between the species
5.3.2 Within a species
5.3.3 Growing locations and the environment
5.3.4 Processing and storage conditions
5.3.5 Plant ages and tissue types and others
5.4 Quantifying the variation of biomolecules in plant species
5.5 Variation of primary metabolites in plant species
5.5.1 Deoxyribonucleic acid variation in plant species, subspecies, and cultivars
5.5.2 Protein variation
5.5.3 Carbohydrate variation
5.5.4 Lipid variation
5.6 Variation in secondary metabolites of plant species
5.6.1 Alkaloids
5.6.2 Terpenes (isoprenoids or terpenoids)
5.6.3 Phenolics (polyphenolic compounds)
5.6.4 Glycosides
5.6.5 Vitamins and minerals and others
5.7 OMICs technology solution for the variation of biomolecules
5.8 Conclusion and prospects
Acknowledgments
References
6 Phytopharmacology of herbal biomolecules
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Emerging need for phytotherapy
6.3 Herbal biomolecules for central nervous system ailments
6.3.1 Curcumin
6.3.1.1 Ginklolides
6.3.1.2 Resveratrol
6.4 Plants’ biomolecules for cardiovascular ailments
6.4.1 Digitalis
6.5 Antimicrobial
6.6 Plant-based antiinflammatory biomolecules
6.7 Herbal biomolecules as anticancer agents
6.7.1 Vinca alkaloids
6.7.2 Taxanes
6.7.3 Campothecin derivatives
6.7.3.1 Cephalotaxine derivatives
6.7.4 Colchicine
6.8 Herbal biomolecules as hepatoprotectives
6.8.1 Silymarin
6.8.2 Glycyrrhizin
6.9 Conclusion
References
7 Analytical characterization of herbal biomolecules
7.1 Introduction to analytical techniques for herbal biomolecules
7.2 Spectroscopic techniques
7.2.1 Ultraviolet-visible, fluorescence, polarimetry, and circular dichroism
7.2.2 Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy
7.2.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance
7.2.4 Single crystal X-ray diffraction
7.2.4.1 Introduction
7.2.4.2 Crystal systems, unit cells, and bravais lattices
7.2.4.3 Symmetry elements, symmetry operations and symmetry notions
7.2.4.4 Crystal classes (point groups)
7.2.4.5 Space groups
7.2.4.6 Miller indices and bragg’s law
7.2.4.7 Generating data and solving crystal structures
7.2.4.8 More examples
7.3 Mass spectrometric techniques
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry
7.3.3 Recent development in ambient desorption ionization
7.4 Chromatography
7.5 Biochemical methods
7.5.1 Immunoassays
7.5.2 Gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis
7.5.3 Sequencing nucleic acids
7.5.4 Sequencing proteins
7.6 Combining several techniques to characterize molecules
7.7 Conclusion and prospects
Acknowledgment
References
8 Bioactivity characterization of herbal molecules
8.1 Antimicrobial uses of herbal compounds for dental disease
8.1.1 Medicinal plants extracts
8.1.2 Herbal mouthwash
8.1.3 Herbal chewing
8.1.4 Medicinal plants and nanoparticles in dental care
8.1.5 Other dental treatments with medicinal plants
8.2 Antimicrobial uses of herbal compounds for respiratory infectious diseases
8.3 Antimicrobial uses of herbal compounds for gastrointestinal diseases
8.4 Identification and characterization of bioactivity of biomolecules of herbal origin with analgesic and antiinflammatory...
8.5 Machine learning in search for new herbal molecules origin with potential application for drugs development
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Machine learning
8.5.3 Machine learning in discovery of new drugs
8.5.4 Deep generative modeling in discovery of new drugs
8.5.5 Virtual screening in discovery of new drugs
8.5.6 Herbal molecules origin in discovery of new drugs
References
9 Herbal carbohydrates in healthcare
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Material and methods
9.2.1 Admission criteria
9.2.2 Exclusion criteria
9.3 Carbohydrates—functions and construction
9.3.1 Structures
9.3.1.1 Types of carbohydrates
9.4 Carbohydrates as a pharmacological raw material
9.5 Functionality
9.6 Clinical Significance
9.7 Concusion
References
10 Herbal oil in healthcare
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sources
10.2.1 Citrus oil
10.2.2 Rosemary essential oil
10.2.3 Oregano oil
10.2.4 Basil essential oil
10.2.5 Mentha essential oil
10.3 Chemical composition
10.3.1 Phenylpropanoids
10.3.2 Terpenoids
10.3.3 Aromatic compunds
10.4 Therapeutic potential
10.4.1 Antimicrobial
10.4.2 Antioxidant
10.4.3 Anticarcinogenic
10.4.4 Traditional uses of herbal oils
10.5 Modern trends of herbal oils
10.5.1 Application in aromatherapy
10.6 Conclusion and future perspective
Acknowledgment
References
11 Essential oils and their bioactive molecules in healthcare
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sources of essential oils
11.3 Chemistry of essential oils
11.4 Methods of extraction and analysis of essential oils
11.5 Biological activities of essential oils
11.5.1 Anti-inflammatory biomolecules
11.5.2 Antimicrobial biomolecules
11.5.3 Antiparasitic and anthelminthic biomolecules
11.5.4 Antimalarial biomolecules
11.5.5 Anticancer and antiproliferative biomolecules
11.6 Trade and commercial applications of essential oils in healthcare
11.7 Risks and dangers of essential oils
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Herbal glycosides in healthcare
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Anthraquinone glycosides
12.2.1 Pharmacological activities
12.2.2 Toxicity
12.3 Cardiac glycosides
12.3.1 Pharmacological activities
12.3.2 Toxicity
12.4 Coumarin glycosides
12.4.1 Pharmacological activities
12.4.2 Toxicity
12.5 Cyanogenic glycosides
12.5.1 Pharmacological activities
12.5.2 Toxicity
12.6 Flavonoid glycosides
12.6.1 Flavonols
12.6.2 Flavones
12.6.3 Flavanones
12.6.4 Isoflavones
12.6.5 Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins
12.6.6 Flavonolignanes
12.6.7 Chalcones
12.6.8 Biflavonoids
12.6.8.1 Pharmacological activities
12.6.9 Toxicity
12.7 Glucosinolates
12.7.1 Pharmacological activities
12.7.2 Toxicity
12.8 Phenol glycosides
12.8.1 Pharmacological activities
12.8.2 Toxicity
12.9 Saponin glycosides
12.9.1 Pharmacological activities
12.9.2 Toxicity
References
13 Herbal alkaloids in healthcare
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Structure, characterization and sources of alkaloids
13.2.1 Biosynthesis and synthesis of alkaloids
13.2.2 Extraction of alkaloids
13.3 Relationship of alkaloids structure and chemistry on pharmacological properties
13.4 Toxic effect of herbal alkaloids and relation to healthcare
13.5 How herbal alkaloids are used to combat chronic diseases
13.5.1 Cancer
13.5.2 Obesity and diabetes
13.5.3 Hypertension
13.5.4 Tuberculosis
13.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
14 Herbal flavonoids in healthcare
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Brief account on herbal medicines
14.2.1 Description of conventional herbal medicines
14.2.1.1 Conventional Chinese medicine
14.2.1.2 Conventional Japanese medicine
14.2.1.3 Indian conventional medicine
14.3 Causes for uprising in the application of herbal medicines
14.3.1 Personal inclination for herbal medicines
14.3.2 Feeling of safety
14.3.3 Efficiency in the management of diseases
14.3.4 Easy accessibility to traditional medical practitioners
14.3.5 Cost-effective or low cost
14.3.6 For ultimate support
14.4 Classification of herbal flavonoids and their chemical structure
14.5 Flavonoid rich food and medicinal plants
14.6 Various fields of application of flavonoids in the healthcare system
14.6.1 Health-improved characteristics of flavonoids
14.6.1.1 Promote immune system
14.6.1.2 Antioxidant activity
14.6.1.3 Anticancer effect of flavonoids
14.6.1.4 Effect of flavonoids on cardiovascular system
14.6.1.5 Effect of flavonoids on nervous system
14.6.1.6 Hepatoprotective activity
14.6.1.7 Antibacterial activity
14.6.1.8 Antiinflammatory potential
14.6.1.9 Antiviral activity
14.6.1.10 Antidiabetic activity
14.6.2 Application of herbal flavonoids in food
14.7 Future research improvement on flavonoids
14.8 Conclusion
References
15 Herbal terpenoids in healthcare
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Medicinal plants as source of terpenoids
15.3 Pharmacological effects of terpenoids
15.3.1 Anticancer effects
15.3.2 Antioxidant effects
15.3.3 Antidiabetic effects
15.4 Antimicrobial effects of terpenoids
15.4.1 Antibacterial effects
15.4.2 Antifungal effects
15.4.3 Antiviral effects
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Herbal coumarins in healthcare
16.1 General description of coumarins
16.2 Bioactivity studies performed on the coumarins
16.2.1 Analgesic activity
16.2.2 Antiadipogenic activity
16.2.3 Antiangiogenic activity
16.2.4 Anticancer activity and cytotoxicity
16.2.5 Anticardiovascular activity
16.2.6 Anticoagulant activity
16.2.7 Antidiabetic activity
16.2.8 Antiedema activity
16.2.9 Antihypertensive activity
16.2.10 Anti-inflammatory activity
16.2.11 Antimicrobial activity
16.2.12 Antioxidant activity
16.2.13 Antispasmodic activity
16.2.14 Antiviral activity
16.2.15 Central nervous system related activities
16.2.15.1 Alzheimer's Disease
16.2.15.2 Anticonvulsant
16.2.15.3 Anxiolytic
16.2.15.4 Depression
16.2.15.5 Neuroprotective
16.2.15.6 Parkinson's Disease
16.2.16 COVID-19 virus
16.2.17 Hepatoprotective activity
16.2.18 Immunomodulator activity
16.2.19 Phototoxicity
16.3 Conclusion
References
17 Plant biomolecule antimicrobials: an alternative control measures for food security and safety
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Phytochemistry of bioactive compounds
17.1.1.1 Polyphenols and their classification
17.1.1.1.1 Phenolic acids
17.1.1.1.2 Flavonoids
17.1.1.1.3 Stilbenes
17.1.1.1.4 Tannins
17.1.1.2 Alkaloids and their classification
17.1.2 Essential oils and plant extracts
17.1.2.1 Plant extracts
17.1.2.2 Essential oils
17.1.2.3 Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and plant extracts
17.1.2.4 Possible mechanisms of action of essential oils and plant extracts
17.1.2.4.1 Susceptibility to gram positive and gram negative bacteria
17.1.2.4.2 Effects of essential oils/extracts on cell wall/membrane
17.1.2.4.3 Dysfunction of mitochondria
17.1.2.4.4 Effects of essential oils/extracts on virulence factor
17.1.2.4.5 Action of essential oils/extracts on reactive oxygen species and fenton reaction
17.1.3 General applications of plant biomolecules
17.1.3.1 Applications of polyphenols
17.1.3.2 Applications of alkaloids
17.2 Conclusion and future prospect
Acknowledgments
References
18 Antidiabetic herbal biomolecules
18.1 Diabetes mellitus
18.2 Glucose homeostasis
18.3 Insulin resistance
18.4 Metabolic pathways and their relationship with diabetes mellitus
18.5 Enzymes
18.6 Causes associated with diabetes mellitus
18.7 Oxidative stress
18.8 Control of diabetes mellitus
18.9 Compounds with antidiabetic properties
18.9.1 Berries
18.9.1.1 Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.)
18.9.1.2 Bayberry (Morella rubra Sieb. et Zucc.)
18.9.1.3 Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa)
18.9.1.4 Mulberry (Morus alba L.)
18.9.1.5 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.)
18.9.2 Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.)
18.9.3 Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre)
18.9.4 Goji (Lycium barbarum)
18.9.5 Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.)
18.9.6 Guava (Psidium guajava L.)
18.9.7 Mushrooms
18.9.8 Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.)
18.9.9 Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.)
18.9.10 Mango (Mangifera indica)
18.9.11 Apple (Malus x domestica L. Borkh.)
18.9.12 Bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.)
18.9.13 Grape (Vitis vinifera L.)
18.10 Conclusions
References
19 Herbal biomolecules: anticancer agents
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Cancer: plant-based treatment
19.3 Plants secondary metabolites as anticancer drugs
19.4 Plant collection, extraction, identification, and anticancer a activity of HBs
19.5 Modern drugs for cancer treatment and its limitations
19.6 Present cancer therapy via phytochemicals: as a novel approach
19.7 Herbal biomolecules with anticancer activity
19.7.1 Phenols as anticancer activity
19.7.2 Flavonoids as anticancer agents
19.7.3 Tannins as anticancer activity
19.7.4 Stilbenes as anticancer agents
19.7.5 Curcuminoids as anticancer agents
19.7.6 Coumarins as anticancer activity
19.7.7 Lignans in anticancer activity
19.7.8 Quinones as anticancer activity
19.7.9 Alkaloids as anticancer agents
19.7.10 Others as anticancer agents
19.8 Various schemes for the development of anticancer herbal biomolecules
19.9 Conclusion and future prospects
References
20 Herbal biomolecules acting on central nervous system
20.1 Contribution of plants to Central Nervous System science
20.2 Herbal biomolecules with central nervous system activities
20.2.1 Alkaloids biomolecules in central nervous system diseases
20.3 Biomolecules with cholinergic stimulant effect
20.3.1 Nicotine
20.3.1.1 Mechanism of psychogenic activity of nicotine
20.3.1.2 Effects of nicotine—a herbal biomolecule
20.3.2 Arecoline
20.3.2.1 Mechanism of action of arecoline and similar biomolecules
20.3.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in areca
20.3.3 Lobeline
20.3.3.1 Mechanism of action of lobeline and other biomolecules in lobelia
20.3.3.2 Effects of biomolecules in lobeline
20.4 Biomolecules with Monoamine Stimulant effect
20.4.1 Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine
20.4.1.1 Mechanism of action of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine and other biomolecules in ephedra
20.4.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in ephedra
20.4.2 Norpseudoephedrine (cathine)
20.4.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Khat and similar biomolecules
20.4.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in khat
20.4.3 Cocaine
20.4.3.1 Mechanism of action of cocaine
20.4.3.2 Effects of biomolecules in coca
20.5 Biomolecles with Purinergic stimulant effects
20.5.1 Caffeine
20.5.2 Theobromine
20.5.3 Cocaine
20.5.4 Mechanism of central nervous system activity of purinergic stimulants
20.5.5 Effects of purinergic stimulants
20.6 Biomolecules with Cognitive enhancing effects
20.6.1 Herbal nootropics
20.6.2 Apigenin
20.6.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ginkgo
20.6.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in ginkgo
20.6.3 Ginsenosides
20.6.3.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ginseng
20.6.3.2 Effects of ginseng biomolecules
20.6.4 Ergot biomolecules
20.6.5 Ergocristine
20.6.5.1 Mechanism of action of hydergine
20.6.5.2 Effects of biomolecules in hydergine
20.6.6 α-Solanine and α-chaconine
20.6.7 l-DOPA
20.7 Herbal sedatives and anxiolytics
20.7.1 Valerian biomolecules
20.7.2 Valeric acid
20.7.2.1 Mechanism of action biomolecules in valerian
20.7.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in valerian
20.7.3 Kava biomolecules
20.7.3.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in kava
20.7.3.2 Effects of kava biomolecules
20.7.4 Passion flower biomolecules
20.7.4.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in passion flower
20.7.4.2 Effects of biomolecules in passion flower
20.7.5 Chamomile biomolecules
20.7.5.1 Mechanism of biomolecules in chamomile
20.7.5.2 Effects of biomolecules in chamomile
20.7.6 Catnip biomolecules
20.8 Psychotherapeutic herbs
20.8.1 Herbal antidepressants and anxiolytics
20.8.2 Saint-John’s Wort biomolecules
20.8.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Saint-John’s Wort
20.8.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in Saint-John’s Wort
20.8.3 Ginger biomolecules
20.8.3.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ginger
20.8.4 Ginkgo biomolecules
20.8.5 Rauwolfia biomolecules
20.8.5.1 Effects of biomolecules in Rauwolfia serpentina
20.9 Analgesic herbs
20.9.1 Opium poppy biomolecules
20.9.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Papaver somniferum
20.9.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in opioid
20.9.2 Myrrh biomolecules
20.9.2.1 Effects of biomolecules in Commophora momol
20.9.3 Cholinergic analgesics
20.9.4 Eicosanoid analgesics
20.9.4.1 Willow biomolecules
20.9.4.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in Willow
20.9.4.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in feverfew
20.9.5 Neurokinin analgesics
20.9.5.1 Capsaicin
20.9.5.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in chili peppers
20.9.5.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in chili pepper
20.9.6 Ginger biomolecules
20.9.7 Purinergic analgesics
20.9.7.1 Cannabinoid analgesia
20.9.7.1.1 Cannabinoids
20.9.8 Monoamine analgesics
20.9.8.1 Cathinone
20.9.8.2 Cocaine
20.9.9 Uncertain analgesic mechanisms
20.9.9.1 Ginsenoside
20.10 Local anesthetic biomolecules
20.10.1 Cocaine
20.10.1.1 Mechanism of local anesthetic action of Cocaine
20.10.2 Eugenol
20.10.2.1 Mechanism of action of eugenol
20.11 Hallucinogenic plants
20.11.1 Monoamine hallucinogens
20.11.1.1 d-Isolysergic acid and d-lysergic acid
20.11.1.1.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in ergot
20.11.1.1.2 Effects of biomolecules in ergot
20.11.1.2 Psilocybin and psilocin
20.11.1.2.1 Mechanisms of action of psilocybin and psilocin
20.11.1.2.2 Effect of psilocybin and psilocin
20.11.1.3 Mescaline
20.11.1.3.1 Mechanisms of action of mescaline
20.11.1.3.2 Effects of biomolecules in peyote
20.11.1.4 Dimethyltryptamine and harmala alkaloids
20.11.1.4.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in yage
20.11.1.4.2 Effects of biomolecules in yage
20.11.1.5 Morning glory and related species
20.11.1.5.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in morning glory and related species
20.11.1.6 Ibogaine (nutmeg and mace biomolecules)
20.11.1.6.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in nutmeg and mace
20.11.1.6.2 Effects of biomolecules in nutmeg and mace
20.11.2 Cholinergic hallucinogens
20.11.2.1 Mechanism of action of biomolecules in cholinergic hallucinogens
20.11.2.2 Effects of biomolecules in cholinergic hallucinogens
20.11.3 Amino acid hallucinogens
20.11.3.1 Fly agaric biomolecules
20.11.3.1.1 Effects of biomolecules in fly agaric
References
21 Herbal biomolecules as nutraceuticals
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Introduction to nutraceuticals
21.1.2 Market scope and regulation of the nutraceuticals
21.2 Classification of the herbal biomolecules
21.2.1 Herbal biomolecules based on food sources
21.2.1.1 Dietary fibers
21.2.1.2 Poly-unsaturated fatty acids
21.2.1.3 Spices and condiments
21.2.2 Herbal biomolecules based on pharmacological property
21.2.2.1 Anticancer herbal biomolecules
21.2.2.2 Antioxidant herbal biomolecules
21.2.2.3 Antiinflammatory herbal biomolecules
21.2.2.4 Antimicrobial and antiviral herbal biomolecules
21.2.2.5 Immunomodulatory herbal biomolecules
21.2.3 Herbal biomolecules based on chemical nature
21.2.3.1 Polyphenols
21.2.3.1.1 Some natural sources of polyphenols
21.2.3.2 Carotenoids
21.2.3.3 Ascorbic acid
21.2.3.4 Tocopherols and tocotrienols
21.2.3.5 Saponins
21.3 Conclusion
References
22 Herbal immunomodulators
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methods
22.3 Results
22.3.1 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounded from plants from genus Achillea
22.3.2 Immunomodulatory effects of the bioactive compounds of Allium cepa
22.3.3 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Crocus sativus
22.3.4 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Curcuma longa
22.3.5 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Ferula spices
22.3.6 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Nigella sativa
22.3.7 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Ocimum basilicum
22.3.8 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Portulaca oleracea, quercetin
22.3.9 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Thymus vulgaris, thymol
22.3.10 Immunomodulatory effects of bioactive compounds of Zataria multiflora
22.4 Discussion and conclusion
Conflict of interest
References
23 Herbal antilithiatic biomolecules
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Kidney stones
23.3 Herbal antilithiatic biomolecules
23.3.1 Lupeol
23.3.1.1 Sources
23.3.1.2 Clinical utility
23.3.1.3 Possible mechanism of action
23.3.2 Epigallocatechin-3-gallate
23.3.2.1 Sources
23.3.2.2 Clinical utility
23.3.2.3 Possible mechanism of action
23.3.3 Quercetin
23.3.3.1 Sources
23.3.3.2 Clinical utility
23.3.3.3 Possible mechanism of action
23.3.4 Thymoquinone
23.3.4.1 Sources
23.3.4.2 Clinical utility
23.3.4.3 Possible mechanism of action
23.3.5 Bergenin
23.3.5.1 Sources
23.3.5.2 Clinical utility
23.3.5.3 Possible mechanism of action
23.4 Conclusions and future perspective
References
24 Herbal aphrodisiac biomolecules in the management of male reproductive and sexual problems: connecting nature with clinics
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Traditional herbal medicine
24.3 Aphrodisiacs
24.3.1 Need for aphrodisiacs
24.3.2 Herbal aphrodisiacs
24.3.2.1 Panax ginseng
24.3.2.2 Tribulus terrestris
24.3.2.3 Eurycoma longifolia
24.3.2.4 Chlorophytum borivilianum
24.3.2.5 Ginkgo biloba
24.3.2.6 Turnera diffusa var. aphrodisiaca
24.4 Potential mechanism of action of aphrodisiac biomolecules
24.5 Conclusion
References
25 Herbal biopolysaccharides in drug delivery
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Classifications and sources of herbal biopolysaccharides
25.2.1 Herbal gums
25.2.2 Herbal mucilages
25.2.3 Herbal starches
25.3 Herbal polysaccharides and their uses in drug delivery
25.3.1 Cellulose
25.3.2 Pectins
25.3.3 Gum Arabic
25.3.4 Gum tragacanth
25.3.5 Guar gum
25.3.6 Sterculia gum
25.3.7 Locust bean gum
25.3.8 Tamarind gum
25.3.8.1 Okra gum
25.3.8.2 Cashew gum
25.3.8.3 Linseed polysaccharide
25.3.8.4 Fenugreek seed mucilage
25.3.8.5 Ispaghula husk mucilage
25.3.8.6 Potato starch
25.3.8.7 Tapioca starch
25.3.8.8 Jackfruit seed starch
25.3.8.9 Miscellaneous
25.4 Conclusion
References
26 Standardization of herbal biomolecules
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Authentication and standardization of herbal drugs
26.2.1 Chemical fingerprinting—chromatographic techniques
26.2.2 Spectroscopic techniques
26.2.3 Metabolomics in herbal drug standardization
26.2.3.1 Metabolomics in the identification of herbal products
26.2.3.2 Metabolomics for quality assessment of herbal medicines
26.2.4 DNA-based techniques
26.2.5 Biochip technology
26.3 Safety and toxicity profiling of herbal medicines
26.3.1 Toxicity arising from extraneous sources
26.3.1.1 Microbial contamination
26.3.1.2 Mycotoxins control
26.3.1.3 Pesticides, fumigation agent residues
26.3.1.4 Radioactive contamination
26.3.1.5 Residual solvents
26.3.1.6 Toxic heavy metal content
26.3.2 Intrinsic toxicity
26.3.2.1 Single-dose toxicity and repeat-dose toxicity studies
26.3.2.2 Genotoxicity studies
26.4 Conclusion
References
27 Regulatory considerations of herbal biomolecules
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Biomolecules
27.2.1 Examples for commercialized biomolecules as drugs
27.2.1.1 Morphine
27.2.1.2 Silibinin
27.2.1.3 Taxol
27.2.1.4 Psilocybin
27.2.1.5 Resveratol
27.3 Food and drug administration regulations on botanical drugs/ biomolecules
27.4 Marketing of herbal biomolecules
27.5 Investigational new drug application for herbal biomolecules
27.6 New drug application for herbal biomolecules
27.6.1 Product description and documentation
27.6.2 Quality control
27.6.3 Postmarketing considerations
27.7 Role of code of federal regulations in regulation of biomolecules
27.7.1 India
27.7.2 Saudi Arabia
27.7.3 Australia
27.7.4 The United States of America
27.7.5 Canada
27.7.6 Europe Union
27.8 World Health Organization regulation policy on herbal biomolecules
27.9 Conclusion
References
28 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Methods
28.3 Results
28.3.1 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules plants from genus Achillea
28.3.2 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Allium cepa
28.3.3 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Crocus sativus
28.3.4 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Curcuma longa
28.3.5 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Ferula spices
28.3.6 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Nigella sativa
28.3.7 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Portulaca oleracea
28.3.8 Clinical trials of herbal biomolecules of Zataria moltiflora
28.4 Discussion and conclusion
Conflict of interest
References
Index
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