Heard Island: Two Centuries of Change, and More Coming

EPIGRAPH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
PART 1 TWO CENTURIES OF CHANGE
SECTION 1 ISLAND
Chapter 1 Description
The romance of Heard Island
Emergence of the Island
Encountering Heard Island
Views
Statistics
Plants
Little creatures
Big creatures
The Heard Island experience
The Heard Island Obsession
The extremes
The uniqueness of Heard Island
Motivations to visit Heard Island
Change on Heard Island
Structural damage (Chapter 5)
Stream meandering (Chapter 20)
Glacier retreat (Chapters 21-23)
Lagoon formation (Chapters 16, 21)
Shoreline erosion (Chapter 21)
Shoreline deposition (Chapter 21)
Barrier instability (Chapter 23)
Barrier breaching (Chapters 23, 36)
Plant growth (Chapter 24)
Three important references
About this book
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 2 Images
Photographs
Satellite images
1991 SPOT
2006 QuickBird
1995+ Radarsat
2008 WorldView-1
2006, 2012 GeoEye
2012 Landsat 8
2015 Aqua
2017 EO-1
2019 Copernicus Sentinel
Bibliography
References
Satellite Images
Private communications
Chapter 3 Maps
Finding Heard Island
Geologic province
19th Century maps
Robinson’s sketches 1858
Sealers maps 1858-1887
Drygalski map 1901-1902
ANARE maps 1947-1955
Geologic maps 1993-2021
Specialty maps
Geological cross section
Glaciers
Geomorphology
Lakes and vegetation
Offshore bathymetry
Birds
Spit Bay
Azorella Peninsula
Bibliography
Abbreviated sources
References
SECTION 2 HISTORY
Chapter 4 Events
Chronology
The 1980 AAD Technical Report 31
The Keage thesis
Historic images of the island
Sketches 1854-1855
1853-1877 Sealing
The HMS Challenger 1874 expedition
Rescue of the Trinity 1882
ANARE 1947
Landing operations
Station construction
Raising the flag
The Fourteen Men
The Walrus aircraft
The ANARE station
Radio operations
ANARE in winter
ANARE after 1947
1949 ANARE station
1951 ANARE station
1952 ANARE station
1953 ANARE station
1953/1954 ANARE station
1954/1955 ANARE station
AAD Expeditions 1956-2004
Climbing Big Ben
1948
1949
1952 – It could wait…
1953 – Within striking distance …
1963 – only about 500 m higher …
Other activities
1969 American Triangulation Expedition
The Heard Island Feasibility Test
Tourism
Amateur Radio
Instructions
Sitelogs
Bibliography
References
Walrus [aircraft]
Heard Island Feasibility Test
Private communications
Chapter 5 Facilities
The Admiralty Hut
Location
The original building (1928-1929)
The ANARE period (1947-1955)
Post-ANARE (1956-present)
1980
1986
1987
1997
2008
2016
The ANARE station plan
1948
1951
1953
1987
1995
2000
ANARE station photos
2016
Buildings
Recreation hut
Sleeping hut
Building interiors
Medical annex
Arbec hut
Powerhouse
Shelters
1850s Excavations
1860-1880s Rocks
1960s-1970s Crates
1980s Pumpkins and apples
1990s Water tanks
2000s Ribcage tents
2010s Airbeam tents
Foundations
Markers
Bibliography
References
Archaeology
Private communications
Chapter 6 Debris
Overview
Sealers' artifacts
Try pots
Machinery
Landing craft
Bulldozer
Trailers
Generators
Fuel drums
Furphys
Inorganic debris
Metal
Synthetics
Plastics
Glass
Organic debris
Wood
Kelp
Marine organisms
Carcasses
Bones
Vertebrae
Dolphin skulls
Leopard seal skulls
Whale bones
Human bones
Furphys
Penguin Bibliography
Refere7nces
Penguin feet
Private communications
PART 2 ROCKS
SECTION 3 PROVINCES
Chapter 7 Atlas Cove
Overview
The Cove
Flooding Atlas Cove:
Wharf Point
Azorella Peninsula
Rogers Head
Mt. Drygalski
Mt. Aubert de la Rüe
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 8 Laurens Peninsula
Overview
Mt. Olsen
Mt. Dixon
Charles Carrol Bluff
West Cape
Woehler Rock
Bibliography
References
Laurens Peninsula
Private communications
Chapter 9 The Spit
Spit Bay
Elephant Spit
Shape changes
Hydrodynamics
Bibliography
References
Private communications
SECTION 4 VOLCANO
Chapter 10 Big Ben
Views
High ridges
Columns
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 11 Mawson Peak
The summit edifice
The Crater
Lava flow
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 12 Volcanic features
Cinder cones
Red Island
Corinth Head
Dovers Crater
Saddle Point
South Barrier cones
Long Beach
The Lied Sketches
Morgan Island Rocks
McDonald Islands
Shag Island
Bibliography
References
High-Latitude Volcanic Eruptions
Private communications
SECTION 5 LITHICS
Chapter 13 Outcroppings
Lava flows
Lava layers
Lava bedding
Lava tube caves
Columnar jointing
Tessellating fracture
Glacial scour
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 14 Till
Tidewater moraines
Lowland moraines
Highland moraines
Surf erosion
Frank Rock
Erratic Point
Rock disintegration
Spalling
Spall pavement
Plate shattering
Conglomerates
Cobbles and pebbles
Bibliography
Abbreviations
References
Private communications
Chapter 15 Sediment
Deposits
The Nullarbor
Flow patterns
Animal tracks
Transport
Scarlet Hill → Stephenson Lagoon North
AU1141 → Stephenson Lagoon
Stephenson Lagoon
Cape Bidlingmaier
Saddle Point
Corinthian Bay
Long Beach
Sediment samples
Volcanic sand and ash
Bibliography
References
Locations of the sediment collections
Private communications
PART 3 WATER
SECTION 6 GLACIERS
Chapter 16 Stephenson Glacier
Overview
Retreat of Stephenson Glacier
Satellite images
2002 Radarsat image
Digital aerial images
Disappearance of the glacier
Retreat
Terminus
Live images 2016
Maps
1947-2000 Stephenson Glacier
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 17 AU1141 Glacier
Overview
Ice slumps
Right lateral (south) moraine
Central terminal (east) moraine
Left lateral (north) moraine
Ice slump mechanism
Ice slicks
Slick #1
Slick #3
Slick #9
Bibliography
References
Personal communications
Chapter 18 Glacial features
Tidewater glaciers
Baudissin Glacier
Ealey Glacier
Vahsel Glacier
Gotley Glacier
Deacock Glacier
Lakewater glaciers
Compton Glacier
Brown Glacier
Glacier dynamics
Lagoon formation: Winston and Stephenson Glaciers
Terminus ice slumping of Fiftyone Glacier
Self-repair of Downes Glacier
Retreat of Heard Island glaciers
Statistics
Bibliography
References
Private communications
SECTION 7 STREAMS
Chapter 19 Inland streams
Stephenson Lagoon
Stream [S2] (Glacier AU1141 ⫸ Stephenson Lagoon)
Stream [S2] (Glacier AU1141 ⫸ Stephenson Lagoon)
Stream [S3] (Stephenson Glacier ⫸ Stephenson Lagoon
Stream [S4] (Scarlet Hill ⫸ Stephenson Lagoon
Stream [S5] (Dovers Moraine ⫸ Stephenson Lagoon East shore)
Stream [S6] (Dovers Moraine ⫸ Stephenson Lagoon East shore)
Marion Tarn
Brown Lagoon
Compton Lagoon
Streams [C1,C2]
Winston Lagoon
Re-entrant streams
Scarlet Hill
Fiftyone Glacier
Meadow streams
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 20 Tidewater streams
Overview
Statistics
Lavett Bluff
Little Beach
Hoseason Beach
Fiftyone Glacier
AU1141 Glacier
Long Beach
Western Glaciers
Meandering streams
Baudissin Glacier
Ephemeral streams
Cascades
Bibliography
References
Private communications
SECTION 8 LAKES
Chapter 21 Stephenson Lagoon
Overview
South shore
Northeast shore
Maps
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 22 Large lakes
Overview
Compton Lagoon
Brown Lagoon
Winston Lagoon
Marion Tarn
Red Island Lake
Bibliography
References
Private communications
Chapter 23 Small lakes
Overview
Dovers Moraine
Spit Bay
Stephenson Lagoon north
Winston Lagoon east
Winston Lagoon southeast
Long Beach (Manning Lagoon)
Paddick Valley east
Ephemeral lakes
Bibliography
References
Private communications
PART 4 ECOSYSTEM
SECTION 9 BIOTA
Chapter 24 Plants
Overview
Representative species
Kerguelen cabbage Pringlea antiscorbutica
Cushion plant Azorella selago
Bluegrass Poa annua
Other common plants
Mycorrhiza (green plant+fungi)
Lichens (algae + fungi)
A previously undocumented plant
Spatial distributions
Scaling
Stability
Network geometry
Changes in the plant communities
The special relevance of South Georgia Island
Bibliography
References
Lichens
Mycorrhiza
Private communications
Chapter 25 Invertebrates
Protists
Invertebrates
Tardigrades
Insects
Beetles
Flies
Spider
Molluscs
Echinoderms
Bibliography
General references
Terrestrial invertebrates
Tardigrades
Insects
Weevils
Beetles
Flies
Mites
Spider
Marine invertebrates
Gastropods
Private communications
Chapter 26 Birds
Overview
The Downes bird map
The Gwynn bird log
Penguins
King Penguins Aptenodytes patagonicus
Macaroni Penguins Eudyptes chrysolophus
Rockhopper Penguins Eudyptes chrysocome
Gentoo Penguins Pygoscelis papua
Emperor(?) penguin Aptenodytes forsteri
Landbirds
Sheathbills Chionis spp.
Seabirds
Albatrosses
Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans
Sooty Albatross Phoebetria fusca
Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris
Light-mantled Sooty Albatross Phoebetria palpebrata
Cormorants
Heard Island Cormorant Phalacrocorax atriceps
Petrels
Southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus
Other seabirds
Cape Petrel Daption capense
Subantarctic Skua Catharacta maccormicki
Antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata
Antarctic Tern Sterna vittata
Kelp Gull Larus dominicanus
Bibliography
References
Penguins
Sheathbill
Albatrosses
Cormorants
Petrels
Other seabirds
Private communications
Chapter 27 Mammals
Seals
Elephant Seals Mirounga leonina
Antarctic Fur Seals Arctocephalus gazelle
Leopard Seals Hydrurga leptonyx
Rodents
Bibliography
Elephant Seals
Fur Seals
Leopard Seals
Rats and mice
Private communications
SECTION 10 ENVIRONMENT
Chapter 28 Ocean
Ocean currents
The Global Conveyor Belt
Ocean fronts and circulation
Currents near Heard Island
Ocean transport
The NOAA drifter program
The NOAA drifters
Worldwide distribution
Deployment
Short-term trajectories
Temperatures
Long-term trajectories
The diving buoys
2016 Deployment
Trajectories
Dive cycles
Depths
Trajectories near the Kerguelen Plateau
Bibliography
References
The Global Conveyor Belt (GCB)
Ocean drift
NOAA drifters buoys
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (ocean)
ARGO diver buoys
Private communications
Chapter 29 Atmosphere
Southern oceanic winds
Weather near Heard Island
Weather on Heard Island
Wind speed and direction
Vortex winds
Temperature
Temperature [Atlas Cove March/April 2016]
Wind chill [Atlas Cove March/April 2016]
Barometric pressure [Atlas Cove 1997-2011 and 2016]
Correlations
Temperature vs. barometric pressure [Spit Bay 1995-2003]
Temperature vs. Humidity [Brown Glacier 2000-2003]
Temperature vs. Illumination [Atlas Cove March/April 2016]
Time-lapse video
Bibliography
References
Wind
Private communications
Chapter 30 Sky
Clouds
Types of clouds
Cloud obstruction
Kármán vortex clouds
Lenticular clouds
Kelvin-Helmholtz clouds
Sunlight
Illumination
Crepuscular rays
Rainbows
The night sky
Aurora australis
Constellations
Bibliography
References
Aurora australis
Clouds
Kármán vortex street
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
Private communications
PART 5 MORE COMING
SECTION 11 DYNAMICS
Chapter 31 Populations
Change in general
Numbers
Aspects of change
Change functions
Phase space
Catastrophe Theory
Mathematical dynamics
Continuous models
Discrete models
Continuous←→Discrete models
Bibliography
References
Catastrophe theory
Chaos
Computer algebra systems
Private communications
Chapter 32 Systems
Overview
System components
Time dependence
Improving the model
System dynamics
Dynamical equations
Case studies
Seals, fish, and humans
Cats, rats, and humans
Advanced mathematical modeling
Equations with constraints
Hybrid-population ecosystems
Discrete event simulation (DES)
Graphic simulations
Heard Island campsite
SimAnt
Spatially dependent processes
Hardware-based simulation
ASICs
NanoLogic
SET Theory Computation
Quantum Computing
Bibliography
References
Websites
Chapter 33 EcoSimulation
Advanced ecosystem modeling
Cellular automata
Fuzzy Logic
Neural networks
Grammar-based models
Individual-based models
Chaos
Numerical software
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Model integration
Environmental indicators
Island biogeography
Climate change
Temperature vs. Latitude
The Three Islands study
Case studies of climate change impact
General impacts of climate change
The 2019 Climate Change Conference
Human visitors
Numbers of visitors
Impacts of visitors
Ecotourism
Simulation terminology
Bibliography
General
Islands
Climate
Indicators
Management
Flora
Fauna
SECTION 12 THE FUTURE
Chapter 34 Research
Motivations
Opportunities
Components
Basic classification
Habitats
Size regimes
Selected projects
Archaeology
Human debris
Marine debris
Organic debris
Climate
Climate change and species diversity
Automatic weather station
Geology
Muography
Hydrology
Glaciology
Ecology
Archaeobiology
Microbiology
Extremophiles
Species vs body mass
Unobserved species
Climate change, glacial recession, and plant diversity
New plant species
Marine research
Soil science
Rafting
Technology
Field operations
Remote sensing
System simulation
Radio science
Bibliography
General references
Geosciences
Biology
Technology
Human impacts
Private communications
Chapter 35 Resources
Authorities
Legislative documents
Management documents
Australian Antarctic Program (AAP)
Australian Antarctic Division (AAD)
Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve (HIMI/MR)
HIMI Management Plans
Australian Antarctic Science Strategy 2004-05 to 2010-11
Heard Island UNESCO World Heritage Site
Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Center (ACE/CRC)
Management resources
Codes of Conduct (CoC)
Environmental organizations
Bibliography
References
AAD
Chapter 36 The Future of Heard Island
Overview
The future of Heard Island as viewed in 1981
Three important books
The state and future of Antarctic environments in a global context
The importance of islands to environmental conservation
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
Securing Antarctica’s Environmental Future (SAEF)
Ongoing invasions by alien plants
Remoteness and biological invasions
The Future of Heard Island
The next Decade (Year AD 2031)
Predictions
News Updates
Report to the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD)
The next Tricade (Year AD 2051)
Propagation of alien plants
Various predictions
Predicting Big Ben eruptions
Predictions
News Updates
Trimilllennium
Report to the Australian External Territories Division (AETD)
The next Century (Year AD 2121)
Red Island Lake
Spit Bay 2121
Antarctic ice sheet
Predictions
Report to the Southern Islands Territories Council (SITC)
The next Millennium (Year AD 3021)
Dovers Moraine
Predictions
News Updates
Report to the World Oceanic Territories Administration (WOTA)
The next Millionium (Year AD 1,002,021)
Future human history
Report to the Universal Combined PanGalactic Archive (UCPGA)
Bibliography
General
Geography
Geosciences
Biology
The Future
The future of wilderness
Private communications
The Australian Antarctic Division
The Australian Antarctic Data Center (AADC)
Acronyms and abbreviations
Common acronyms
Environmental acronyms
Environment, Conservation, Education, Regulation, and Other
“A Functional Biogeography of the Antarctic” (AFBA) partners
Centers for Environmental Information
Artifacts
Australian National Data Service (ANDS)
Additional environmental organizations
APPENDIX – ONLINE RESOURCES
The Australian Antarctic Division
The Australian Antarctic Data Center (AADC)
Acronyms and abbreviations
Common acronyms
Environmental acronyms
Environment, Conservation, Education, Regulation, and Other
“A Functional Biogeography of the Antarctic” (AFBA) partners
Centers for Environmental Information
Artifacts
Australian National Data Service (ANDS)
Additional environmental organizations
FIGURE CREDITS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
INDEX