Hazardous and Trace Materials in Soil and Plants: Sources, Effects, and Management

Front Cover
Hazardous and Trace Materials in Soil and Plants
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Foreword
Preface
A. Overview of hazardous and trace materials in soil, plants & environment
1 An overview of the hazardous and trace materials in soil and plants
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Conclusion
References
2 Biological contamination and the control of biological contaminants in the environment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Effect of biological contamination
2.2.1 Biological contamination of food
2.2.2 Biological contamination of water
2.2.3 Biological contamination of air
2.2.4 Biological pollutants related to human health
2.3 Measures to control biological contaminants
2.3.1 Physical removal
2.3.2 Chemical additives
2.3.3 Changing environmental conditions
2.4 Biotechnology and biological contamination
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Long-term challenges, the characteristics and behavior of various hazardous material and trace elements in soil““““
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Soil contamination from the fertilizer trace element
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Various fertilizer and fertilizers for micronutrients
3.2.3 Over to crops and grazing animals for trace element
3.2.4 Management strategies of toxic element
3.3 Trace element deficient soils
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 The trace element soils definition
3.3.3 Soil factors with deficits in trace elements
3.3.3.1 Micronutrient deficiencies and general soil factors relationship
3.3.3.2 Boron
3.3.3.2.1 Behavior of boron in soil
3.3.3.2.2 Conclusion
3.3.3.3 Copper
3.3.3.3.1 Toxicity effect of copper
3.3.3.3.2 Management strategies
3.3.3.4 Lead
3.3.3.4.1 Sources of lead
3.3.3.4.2 Toxic effect of lead
3.3.3.4.3 Lead remediation approaches
3.3.4.3.1 Physical approaches
3.3.4.3.2 Chemical approaches
3.4 Arsenic, antimony, cadmium, zinc, copper
3.4.1 Arsenic
3.4.1.1 Introduction
3.4.1.2 Source of arsenic
3.4.1.3 Toxicity of arsenic
3.4.1.4 Control of toxicity
3.4.2 Antimony
3.4.2.1 Introduction
3.4.2.2 Sources of antimony
3.4.2.3 Toxic effect of antimony
3.4.2.4 Control of toxicity
3.4.3 Cadmium
3.4.3.1 Introduction
3.4.3.2 Source of cadmium
3.4.3.3 Toxicity of cadmium
3.4.3.4 Toxicity control
3.4.4 Zinc
3.4.4.1 Introduction
3.4.4.2 Source of zinc
3.4.4.3 Toxicity effect
3.4.4.4 Control of toxic effect
3.4.5 Copper
3.4.5.1 Introduction
3.4.5.2 Sources of copper
3.4.5.3 Copper toxicity and tolerance in plants
3.4.5.4 Management of copper-contaminated soils
3.5 Conclusion and directions for the future
References
4 Effect of selenium on soils and plants and its management
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General characteristic and occurrence of Se
4.3 Occurrence in soil
4.4 Occurrence in plants
4.5 Effects of Se on plants and soils
4.6 Methods of analysis of selenium
4.7 Selenium deficient regions
4.8 Selenium enrichment of crops
4.9 Selenium and human health
4.10 Toxicity of Se
4.11 Selenium genetics in plants and their biofortification handling
4.12 Selenium metabolism genetic engineering for plant restoration
4.13 Conclusion
References
B. Hazardous and trace materials in the soil environment
5 Heavy metals in contaminated soil: a bird’s eye view on causes, risks, and strategies for remediation
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Listing of heavy metals
5.1.2 Heavy metal toxicity and environmental crisis
5.1.2.1 Environmental stress by heavy metal deposition
5.2 Heavy metal contamination in soil
5.2.1 Causes of heavy metal deposition in soil
5.2.1.1 Chemical fertilizers
5.2.1.2 Industrial discharge and heavy metals
5.2.1.3 Urban runoff
5.2.1.4 E-waste
5.2.2 Impact of heavy metal contaminated soil on lives
5.2.2.1 Impact on plant lives
5.2.2.2 Impact on human lives
5.2.3 Strategies to overcome and remediate heavy metal contamination in soil
5.2.3.1 Soil removal
5.2.3.2 Surface capping
5.2.3.3 Encapsulation
5.2.3.4 Soil leaching
5.2.3.5 Immobilization/chemical passivation
5.2.3.6 Electrokinetic remediation
5.2.3.7 Asymmetrical alternating current electrochemical method
5.2.3.8 Vitrification
5.2.3.9 Bioremediation
5.2.3.9.1 Microbial bioremediation
5.2.3.9.2 Phytoremediation
5.3 Conclusion
References
6 Soil chemical pollution and remediation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Soil pollution
6.2.1 Soil pollution causes
6.2.2 Modern agriculture practices
6.2.3 Urban waste materials
6.2.4 Industrial waste materials
6.2.5 Biological agents
6.2.6 Radioactive agents
6.2.7 Types of chemicals that cause soil pollution
6.2.7.1 Heavy metals
6.2.7.2 Mercury (Hg)
6.2.7.3 Lead (Pb)
6.2.7.4 Arsenic (As)
6.2.7.5 Cadmium (Cd)
6.2.7.6 Nickel (Ni)
6.2.7.7 Zinc (Zn)
6.2.7.8 Copper (Cu)
6.2.7.9 Petroleum hydrocarbons
6.2.7.10 Asbestos
6.2.7.11 Radionuclides
6.2.7.12 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
6.2.7.13 Volatile organic compounds
6.2.7.14 Phenols, chlorophenols, and chlorobenzenes
6.2.7.15 Pesticides
6.2.7.16 Explosives
6.3 Remediation of soil pollutants
6.3.1 In situ
6.3.2 Ex situ
6.3.3 In situ: natural or biological-based
6.3.3.1 Bioremediation
6.3.3.2 Bio-venting
6.3.3.3 Biosparging
6.3.3.4 Bio slurping
6.3.3.5 Bioaugmentation
6.3.4 Microbial remediation
6.3.4.1 Bioremediation using fungus (mycoremediation)
6.3.4.2 Bioremediation using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
6.3.4.3 Bioremediation using plants (phytoremediation)
6.3.4.4 Remediation of using earthworms: vermiremediation
6.3.4.4.1 Ex situ biological remediation technology
6.3.4.4.2 Biopiles
6.3.4.4.3 Bioleaching
6.3.4.4.4 Composting
6.3.4.4.5 Bioreactors
6.3.5 Physical remediation
6.3.5.1 In situ physical remediation
6.3.5.1.1 Electrokinetic separation
6.3.5.1.2 Air sparging
6.3.6 Ex situ physical treatment
6.3.6.1 Separation
6.3.6.2 Gravity separation
6.3.6.3 Magnetic separation
6.3.6.4 Soil washing
6.3.6.5 Solidification/stabilization
6.3.7 Chemical remediation technique
6.3.7.1 In situ chemical remediation
6.3.7.1.1 Solidification/stabilization
6.3.7.1.2 In situ chemical oxidation remediation
6.3.7.1.3 In situ chemical reduction remediation
6.3.7.2 Ex situ chemical remediation
6.3.7.2.1 Chemical reduction/oxidation
6.3.7.2.2 Dehalogenation
6.3.8 Thermal remediation
6.3.8.1 Electrical resistance heating
6.3.8.2 Steam enhanced extraction
6.3.8.3 Conductive heating
6.3.8.4 Radio-frequency heating
6.3.8.5 Vitrification
6.3.9 Ex situ thermal remediation
6.3.9.1 Cement kilns
6.3.9.2 Incineration
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Soil heavy metal pollution: impact on plants and methods of bioremediation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Occurrence of heavy metal(loid)s in soil
7.3 Heavy metal polluted soils
7.4 Heavy metals impact on soil microorganisms
7.5 Impact of heavy metals contaminated soil on plant growth
7.6 Bioremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils
7.6.1 Bioremediation of heavy metals polluted soils by using microorganisms
7.7 Phytoremediation
7.7.1 Phytoextraction
7.7.2 Phytovolatalization
7.7.3 Phytostabilization
7.7.4 Phytodegradation
7.8 Combination of plants and microorganisms for the remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils
7.9 Conclusion
References
C. Hazardous and trace materials in the aquatic environment
8 Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products from water and wastewater through biological processes: an overview
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Occurrence and toxicity of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
8.3 Biological treatment technologies for pharmaceuticals and personal care products removal from water and wastewater
8.3.1 Biological trickling filters
8.3.2 Biological nitrification and denitrification
8.3.3 Biological activated carbon
8.3.4 Microalgae and fungal bioreactors
8.3.5 Activated sludge
8.3.6 Membrane bioreactors
8.3.7 Constructed wetlands
8.3.8 Biosorption
8.3.9 Aerobic and anaerobic digestion of sludge
8.4 Concluding remarks and future perspectives
References
9 Sediment pollution in aquatic environments of the metropolitan region of Buenos Aires, Argentina
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sediment pollution by basins and water bodies
9.2.1 Luján basin
9.2.2 Reconquista basin
9.2.3 Matanza-Riachuelo basin
9.2.4 Basins of south metropolitan region of Buenos Aires
9.2.4.1 Sarandí-Las Perdices, Santo Domingo and Jiménez streams
9.2.4.2 Las Conchitas, Baldovinos and Pereyra streams
9.2.4.3 Martín-Carnaval and Del Gato streams
9.2.5 Lower Paraná delta
9.2.6 Río de la Plata estuary
9.3 Sediment management and remediation
9.4 Final remarks
References
D. Hazardous and trace materials in plants
10 Hazardous elements in plants: sources, effect and management
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sources of “hazardous elements”
10.2.1 Arsenic (As)
10.2.2 Lead (Pb)
10.2.3 Mercury (Hg)
10.3 Consequences of hazardous elements on plant growth
10.4 Uptake mechanisms of hazardous element
10.4.1 Pathways of metal transport in plants
10.4.2 Mechanisms of metal stress tolerance and metal destiny in plants
10.4.3 Sources of metals in food crops: genotoxicity and health risks
10.5 Management of hazardous elements
10.5.1 Reduction of the source
10.5.2 Eco-remediation
10.5.3 Physicochemical and chemical strategies
10.6 Nanoparticle techniques
10.7 Conclusion
References
11 Bioaccumulation and translocation of some trace elements in co-occurring halophytes (Amaranthaceae) from Algerian saline...
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Plant description
11.2.1 Salicornia arabica L.
11.2.2 Suaeda mollis (Desf.) Del.
11.2.3 Traganum nudatum Del.
11.3 Trace element contents in soil
11.4 Trace element contents in halophytic species
11.4.1 Antimony (Sb)
11.4.2 Barium (Ba)
11.4.3 Bromine (Br)
11.4.4 Calcium (Ca)
11.4.5 Cerium (Ce)
11.4.6 Cobalt (Co)
11.4.7 Chromium (Cr)
11.4.8 Cesium (Cs)
11.4.9 Europium (Eu)
11.4.10 Iron (Fe)
11.4.11 Hafnium (Hf)
11.4.12 Potassium (K)
11.4.13 Lanthanum (La)
11.4.14 Rubidium (Rb)
11.4.15 Scandium (Sc)
11.4.16 Samarium (Sm)
11.4.17 Terbium (Tb)
11.4.18 Zinc (Zn)
11.5 The principal component analysis
11.6 Bioaccumulation and translocation factors
11.7 Estimation of the dietary intake of some essential elements by small ruminants
11.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
12 Heavy metal toxicity and underlying mechanisms for heavy metal tolerance in medicinal legumes
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Heavy metals toxicity-tolerance mechanisms in plants
12.3 Effects of heavy metal stress on medicinal legumes
12.3.1 Aluminum
12.3.2 Copper
12.3.3 Zinc
12.3.4 Cadmium
12.3.5 Chromium (Cr)
12.3.6 Lead (Pb)
12.3.7 Arsenic (As)
12.3.8 Silver (Ag)
12.3.9 Mercury (Hg)
12.3.10 Nickel (Ni)
12.4 Alleviation of heavy metal stress in legumenous plants
12.4.1 Plant growth regulators application
12.4.2 Nutrient application
12.4.3 Ecological approaches
12.5 Use of nanotechnology/nanoparticles
12.6 Production of heavy metal-tolerant transgenic plants
12.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
13 Biochemical responses of plants towards heavy metals in soil
13.1 Introduction: heavy metals as pollutants
13.2 Lead
13.3 Mercury (Hg)
13.4 Cadmium
13.5 Chromium (Cr)
13.6 Arsenic (As)
13.7 Copper
13.8 Nickel (Ni)
13.9 Zinc (Zn)
13.10 Iron
13.11 Conclusion
References
14 Spatial distribution of arsenic species in soil ecosystem and their effect on plant physiology
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Arsenic around the globe
14.2.1 Oxidation of the arsenic sulfide ores
14.2.2 Competitive exchange of phosphate from fertilizers
14.2.3 Change in soil physiology
14.2.4 FeOOH reduction and dissolution
14.3 Arsenic toxicity and epidemiology
14.4 Arsenic exposure in plants
14.4.1 Arsenate uptake
14.4.2 Arsenite uptake
14.4.3 Mechanism of entry of methylated arsenic forms
14.5 Effects of arsenic on plants growth and development
14.5.1 Reduction in the rate of photosynthesis
14.5.2 Reduction in the amount of chlorophyll
14.5.3 Reduced mineral intake
14.5.4 Effect on ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) synthesis
14.5.5 Effect on cell membranes
14.5.6 Stunted growth
14.6 Arsenic resistance mechanisms in microbes
14.6.1 Arsenite efflux pump
14.6.2 Arsenate reductase
14.6.2.1 Thioredoxin-coupled arsenate reductase
14.6.2.2 Glutaredoxin-coupled arsenate reductase
14.6.2.3 ACR2p family
14.6.2.4 Thioredoxin/glutaredoxin hybrid arsenate reductase
14.6.3 Arsenic repressor/regulatory protein
14.6.4 Arsenite efflux ATPase
14.6.5 Metallochaperones
14.6.6 Methyltransferases
14.6.7 Proteins for arsenic resistance
14.6.8 Aquaglyceroporins
14.6.9 ArsT and ArsO proteins
14.6.10 Arsenic resistance protein ArsN
14.7 Arsenite oxidation and arsenate respiration
14.7.1 As(III) Oxidation (aox and aro system)
14.7.2 arr system of As(V) reduction
14.8 Arsenic mitigation strategies
14.8.1 Bioremediation
14.8.2 Biosorption
14.8.3 Phytoremediation
14.8.3.1 Manipulation of metal transporter genes and uptake system
14.8.3.2 Increasing the production of metal and metalloid binding ligands
14.8.4 Genetic engineering
14.8.4.1 Genetic engineering for arsenate reduction
14.8.4.2 Genetic engineering for vacuolar sequestration
14.8.4.3 Genetic engineering for volatilization
14.8.4.4 Genetic engineering for increased translocation from root to shoot
14.9 Conclusion
References
15 Aluminum in tea plants: phytotoxicity, tolerance and mitigation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Absorption and transportation of Al
15.3 Factors that increase the toxicity of Al
15.4 Al phytotoxicity
15.4.1 Mechanism
15.4.2 Metabolic effect of Al toxicity
15.4.2.1 Photosynthesis
15.4.2.2 Oxidative stress
15.5 Association of Al with nutrients
15.5.1 Interfere calcium uptake
15.5.2 Al alleviates iron toxicity
15.5.3 Al alleviates manganese toxicity
15.6 Tolerance mechanism
15.6.1 Exclusion mechanism
15.6.1.1 Organic acid exudation
15.6.1.2 pH transition in the rhizosphere
15.6.2 Internal tolerance mechanism
15.6.2.1 Al chelation with organic acid and polyphenol
15.6.2.2 Compartmentalization of Al
15.6.2.3 Cell wall modification
15.7 Mitigation of Al toxicity
15.7.1 Alteration in the soil pH
15.7.2 Industrial byproduct
15.7.3 Application of mineral nutrients
15.7.3.1 Phosphorus
15.7.3.2 Magnesium
15.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
16 Role of phytohormones in mitigating the harmful impacts of hazardous and trace materials on agriculture crops
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Impact of hazardous and trace mineral elements on crop plants
16.3 Zinc toxicity
16.4 Cadmium toxicity
16.5 Lead toxicity
16.6 Arsenic toxicity
16.7 Mercury toxicity
16.8 Plant response over hazardous and trace metal exposure
16.9 Phytohormones role in reversing the impact of metal-induced stress on plants
16.9.1 Phytohormones
16.10 Cytokinins response over metal-induced toxicity
16.11 Auxin response over metal-induced toxicity
16.12 Salicylic acid response over metal-induced toxicity
16.13 Gibberellins response over metal-induced toxicity
16.14 Jasmonates response over metal-induced toxicity
16.15 Conclusion
References
17 Cadmium-induced oxidative stress and remediation in plants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Cd source and contamination
17.3 Factors affecting Cd accumulation in plants
17.3.1 pH
17.3.2 Organic matter
17.3.3 Aging
17.3.4 Plant species
17.4 Effects of Cd on plant systems
17.4.1 Seed germination
17.4.2 Plant growth and development
17.4.3 Oxidative damages
17.4.3.1 Interference with photosynthesis
17.4.3.2 Redox imbalance and cell death
17.5 Alleviation of Cd toxicity
17.5.1 Antioxidant enzymes
17.5.2 Plant growth regulators
17.6 Application of biochars
17.7 Phytochelatin synthase genes and their expression
17.8 Metallothionein and related gene expression
17.9 Transgenic development using PC and MT genes
17.10 Phytoremediation
17.11 Organic manure and other compounds
17.12 Conclusion and future perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Further reading
E. Hazardous and trace materials and microorganisms
18 Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria as bioremediators of polluted agricultural soils: challenges and prospects
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The general significance of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
18.3 Rhizobacteria (plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria) as bioremediators of polluted soil
18.4 Mechanism of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria-assisted phytoremediation
18.5 Biodegradation
18.6 Phytoextraction
18.7 Phytostabilization
18.8 Challenges and prospects
18.9 Conclusion
References
19 Bacterial polyamines: a key mediator to combat stress tolerance in plants
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Biosynthesis of polyamines
19.3 Regulatory functions of polyamines
19.4 Strategies of bacterial polyamines to combat stress
References
20 Plants and microbes assisted remediation of cadmium-contaminated soil
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Cadmium uptake and transport in plants
20.2.1 Cadmium uptake by roots
20.2.2 Xylem loading and translocation
20.2.3 Phloem transport
20.2.4 Factors controlling the cadmium uptake
20.3 Cadmium toxicity and its impact on plants health
20.3.1 Impact on seed germination
20.3.2 Impact on plant growth and development
20.3.3 Oxidative damage
20.3.4 Impact on the photosynthetic system
20.3.5 Impact on reproductive tissue
20.3.6 Effects on mineral and nutrients uptake
20.4 Remediation strategies for Cd toxicity
20.4.1 Phytoremediation
20.4.1.1 Phytoextraction
20.4.1.2 Phytostabilization
20.4.1.3 Phytofiltration
20.4.1.4 Phytostimulation
20.4.1.5 Phytovolatilization
20.4.2 Phytoremediation of cadmium-contaminated soil
20.4.3 Microbial remediation
20.4.3.1 Bacterial remediation
20.4.3.2 Fungal remediation
20.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
21 The efficiency of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on sequestration of potentially toxic elements in soil
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Potentially toxic elements
21.3 Mycorrhiza
21.3.1 Types of mycorrhiza
21.3.2 Arbuscular mycorrhizae
21.3.3 Arbuscular mycorrhizal classification
21.3.4 Arbuscular mycorrhizal structures
21.3.5 The importance of mycorrhizal coexistence
21.3.6 Factors affecting mycorrhizal coexistence
21.3.7 The concentration of nutrients in the soil
21.3.8 The importance of arbuscular mycorrhizae in soil-plant relationships
21.3.9 The role of arbuscular mycorrhizae in the transport of potentially toxic elements
21.3.10 The role of arbuscular mycorrhizae in cadmium transport
21.3.11 Arbuscular mycorrhizal solutions in the stabilization of potentially toxic elements
21.3.12 The effect of potentially toxic elements on arbuscular mycorrhizal activity
21.4 Glomalin
21.5 Conclusion and future perspective
References
F. Management and remediation of hazardous and trace materials
22 Biomonitoring of heavy metals contamination in soil ecosystem
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Overview of heavy metals
22.1.2 Heavy metals interactions
22.1.3 Heavy metals detoxification mechanisms
22.1.4 Biomonitoring using biosensors
22.1.5 Plants used as biosensors
22.2 Conclusion
References
23 Role of nanoparticles in remediation of environmental contaminants
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Interaction between nanoparticles and biotic and abiotic factors
23.3 Carbon-based nanoparticles for the amelioration of pollutants
23.4 Silica-based nanomaterials for the removal of environmental contaminants
23.5 Polymer-based nanoparticles for the elimination of waste materials
23.6 Metal and metal oxide-based nanoparticles
23.7 Economic importance of nanotechnology
23.8 Conclusion and future perspective
Acknowledgments
References
24 Genomic approaches for phytoremediation of trace and hazardous metals
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Mechanisms of metal uptake, accumulation and exclusion
24.3 Genetic engineering for metal tolerance/accumulation
24.3.1 Metallothioneins and phytochelatins
24.3.2 Metal transporters
24.3.3 Modification of metabolic pathways
24.3.4 Alteration of oxidative stress mechanisms
24.3.5 Alteration in roots
24.3.6 Alteration in biomass
24.4 Genetically engineered plants in remediation of trace and hazardous materials
24.5 Conclusion
References
Index
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