Bread and leavened bakery products have been essential to human nourishment for millennia. Traditionally, bread production has relied on the use of sourdough as a leavening agent and to impart a characteristic quality to baked goods. In recent years, improved understanding of the biodiversity and microbial ecology of sourdough microbiota, the discovery of new species, the improved management and monitoring of its meta-community and the commercialization of innovative products have vastly expanded the potential of sourdough fermentation for making baked goods. For example, raw materials such as cereals, pseudo-cereals, ancient grains, and gluten-free substrates, as well as a large number of baked good varieties (e.g., typical and industrial breads, sweet baked goods, gluten-free products) may benefit from advances in sourdough fermentation. In addition, biotechnological tools and culture properties have been discovered to improve both the shelf life and the sensory and textural qualities of baked goods, as well as their nutritional and health-promoting properties.
Now in its second edition, the Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology remains the only book dedicated completely to sourdough biotechnology with the contribution of the most experienced researchers from the field. It reviews the history of sourdough and the potential of sourdough fermentation in the production of bread and baked goods. A thorough discussion of the various processing steps includes the chemical properties of the raw matter, the taxonomy, diversity, and metabolic properties of starter yeasts and lactic acid bacteria, and the effects of sourdough fermentation on the shelf life and the sensory, textural, nutritional, and health-promoting properties of baked goods.
Author(s): Marco Gobbetti, Michael Gänzle
Edition: 2
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 399
City: Cham
Contents
1: History and Social Aspects of Sourdough
1.1 Sourdough: The Ferment of Life
1.2 History and Social Aspects of Sourdough in France
1.3 History and Social Aspects of Sourdough in Italy
1.4 History and Social Aspects of Sourdough in Germany
1.5 Global History
1.6 Recent Developments
References
2: Sourdough in a Regulatory Context
2.1 Sourdough as a Subject of Food Law
2.2 National Regulations
2.2.1 Austria
2.2.2 Germany
2.2.3 France
2.2.4 Spain
2.2.5 Czech Republic
2.2.6 Netherlands
2.2.7 Codes of Practice
2.3 Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) and Traditional Specialty Guaranteed (TSG)
References
3: Chemistry of Cereal Grains
3.1 Introductory Remarks
3.2 Grain Morphology and Chemical Composition
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3.1 Starch
3.3.1.1 Changes in Starch Structure During Processing
3.3.1.2 Digestion of Starch as Affected by Structural Features
3.3.2 Nonstarch Polysaccharides (NSP)
3.3.2.1 Arabinoxylans
3.3.2.2 Other Non-starch Polysaccharides
3.4 Proteins
3.4.1 Storage Proteins
3.4.1.1 Wheat, Rye, Barley, and Oats Storage Proteins
3.4.1.2 Wheat Gluten
3.4.2 Storage Proteins of Maize, Millet, Sorghum, and Rice
3.4.3 Metabolic Proteins: Enzymes and Enzyme Inhibitors
3.5 Lipids
3.5.1 Lipid Composition
3.5.2 Effects of Lipids on the Baking Performance of Wheat Flour
3.6 Minor Constituents
3.6.1 Minerals
3.6.2 Vitamins
3.6.3 Bioactive Compounds or Phytochemicals
3.6.4 Antinutrients
Appendix
References
4: Technology of Sourdough Fermentation and Sourdough Application
4.1 Fermentation Schemes
4.1.1 Rye Processing
4.1.1.1 Industrial Nordic Rye Sourdoughs
4.1.1.2 Industrial Rye Sourdough Types
High Dry Matter Type 1 Sourdough (Firm Sourdough)
Low Dry Matter Industrial Sourdoughs (Liquid, Pumpable Sourdough)
Rye Sourdough Bread Making
4.1.2 Wheat Processing
4.2 Mother Dough
4.2.1 Development of Mother Dough by Spontaneous Fermentation
4.2.2 Cereal Based Sourdough Starters Obtained by Back-slopping
4.2.3 Dried Sourdoughs with Active Cultures
4.2.4 Freeze-Dried Cultures
4.3 Dried Sourdoughs
4.3.1 Ready-to-Use Industrial Sourdough
4.3.2 Spray-Dried and Drum-Dried Ready-to-Use Sourdoughs
4.4 The Future of Industrial Bread
References
5: Steamed Bread
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Steamed Bread
5.2.1 Northern-Style Steamed Bread
5.2.2 Southern-Style Steamed Bread
5.2.3 Cantonese-Style Steamed Bread
5.2.4 Differences in Ingredients of the Three Types of Steamed Bread
5.2.5 Differences in Physical Properties
5.3 Process for Steamed Bread Preparation
5.3.1 Sourdough Procedure
5.3.2 Dough Preparation Procedures
5.3.3 Microbiology of Traditional Chinese Sourdoughs
5.3.4 Control of Proofing Conditions
5.3.5 Steaming
5.3.6 Cooling and Packing
5.3.7 Quick-Frozen Steamed Bread
5.4 Effect of Sourdough on Steamed Bread Quality
5.4.1 Texture
5.4.2 Volatile Compounds
5.4.3 Shelf Life
References
6: Taxonomy and Species Diversity of Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.1 Taxonomy of Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.1.1 Phylogenetic Position of Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.1.2 Classification of Lactobacillaceae
6.1.3 Occurrence and Identification of Lactobacillaceae in Sourdoughs
6.1.4 Lactobacillaceae Species First Isolated from Sourdough
6.1.5 Pediococcus, Leuconostoc, and Weissella as Subdominant Lactic Acid Bacteria Sourdough Species
6.2 Isolation of Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.3 Identification of Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.3.1 Culture-Dependent Approaches
6.3.1.1 Phenotypic Identification
6.3.1.2 Chemotaxonomic Identification
6.3.1.3 DNA Fingerprint-Based Molecular Identification
6.3.1.4 DNA Sequence-Based Molecular Identification
6.3.2 Culture-Independent Approaches
6.3.2.1 Oligonucleotide Probe/Primer-Based Identification
6.3.2.2 Whole-Community DNA Fingerprinting Identification
6.3.2.3 Metagenetic (PCR Amplicon)-Based Identification
6.3.2.4 Microarray-Based Metatranscriptomics
6.3.2.5 Sequencing-Based Metatranscriptomics
6.3.2.6 Metagenomics
6.3.2.7 Whole-Genome Sequencing
6.4 Meta-Analysis of the Species Diversity of Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
6.5 Factors Influencing the Lactic Acid Bacterial Species Diversity of Sourdoughs
6.5.1 Influence of Geography
6.5.1.1 The Origin of Sourdough and the Sourdough-Specific Lactic Acid Bacterial Species Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis
6.5.1.2 The Origin of Sourdough Variation
6.5.1.3 Region-Specific Sourdoughs and Their Associated Microbiota
6.5.1.4 Influence of Cereals and Other Raw Materials
6.5.1.5 Influence of Technology
Sourdough Processing
Functional Starter Cultures
Fermentation Temperature
Acidity
Dough Yield
Oxygen Tension
Backslopping Parameters
Microbial Interactions
References
7: Taxonomy, Biodiversity, and Physiology of Sourdough Yeasts
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Yeast Taxonomy
7.2.1 Defining Yeast Taxa
7.2.2 Identifying Yeast Species in Sourdough
7.3 Yeasts Species Diversity
7.3.1 Yeast Species Detected in Sourdoughs
7.3.2 Geographical Distribution of Yeast Species Across Sourdoughs
7.4 Yeast Dispersion Across Environments
7.4.1 Dispersion Vectors
7.4.2 Origin of Sourdough Yeast Species
7.5 Abiotic Factors Influencing Yeast Species Diversity in Sourdoughs
7.5.1 Cereal Species
7.5.2 Bakery Practices
7.5.2.1 Scale of Production
7.5.2.2 Temperature
7.5.2.3 Hydration Rate
7.5.2.4 Time Between Back-Slopping and Re-feeding Practices
7.6 Yeasts Evolution in Sourdough
7.6.1 Intraspecific Diversity in Sourdough and the Selection of a New Starter
7.6.2 Domestication of S. cerevisiae for Bread-Making
7.6.3 Yeast–LAB and Yeast–Yeast Interactions
7.6.3.1 Co-occurrence and Facilitation
7.6.3.2 Metabolism
7.6.4 Yeast/Yeast Interactions
7.7 Physiology and Biochemistry of Sourdough Yeasts
7.7.1 The Yeast Nitrogen Metabolism
7.7.2 The Yeast Carbohydrate Metabolism
7.7.3 Stress Response in Sourdough Yeasts
7.7.3.1 Low Temperature
7.7.3.2 Acidity
7.7.3.3 Osmotic Stress
7.7.3.4 Membrane Lipids as Modulators of Stress Tolerance in Yeasts
7.7.4 Secondary Yeast Metabolites in Sourdough
7.8 Baker’s Yeast in the Bread-Making Industry
7.8.1 Baker’s Yeast Production
7.8.1.1 Raw Materials
7.8.1.2 Fermentation
7.8.2 General Characteristics of Fresh and Dry Baker’s Yeast
7.8.2.1 Fresh Baker’s Yeast
7.8.2.2 Dry Baker’s Yeast
References
8: Physiology and Biochemistry of Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria and Their impact on Bread Quality
8.1 Introduction
8.2 General Growth and Stress Parameters
8.3 Metabolism of Carbohydrates
8.3.1 Use of External Acceptors of Electrons
8.3.2 Metabolism of Organic Acids
8.3.3 Preferential and/or Simultaneous Use of Energy Sources
8.3.4 Metabolism of Oligosaccharides
8.4 Proteolysis and Catabolism of Free Amino Acids
8.4.1 Proteolysis
8.4.2 Amino Acid Metabolism
8.4.3 Synthesis of Kokumi-Active Peptides
8.5 Synthesis of Exopolysaccharides
8.5.1 EPS Biosynthesis and HoPS Structure
8.5.2 Ecological Function of HoPS Production and HoPS Formation in Dough
8.6 Antimicrobial Compounds from Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
8.6.1 Antifungal Compounds from Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
8.6.2 Antibacterial Compounds from Sourdough Lactic Acid Bacteria
8.7 Metabolism of Phenolic Compounds and Lipids
8.8 Metabolism of Sourdough Metacommunities
References
9: Sourdough: A Tool for Non-conventional Fermentations and to Recover Side Streams
9.1 Introduction
9.2 By-Products and Surplus from the Cereal Industry
9.2.1 Side-Streams Generation
9.2.2 Re-use and Valorization of Milling By-Products Through Fermentation
9.2.2.1 Wheat Bran
9.2.2.2 Wheat Germ
9.2.2.3 Rye Bran
9.2.2.4 Rice Germ and Bran
9.2.2.5 Milling By-Products from Other Cereals
9.3 Fermentation of the Cereal Industry Waste
9.3.1 Brewers’ Spent Grain
9.3.2 Surplus and Waste Bread
9.4 Fermentation of Legumes and Pseudo-cereals
9.4.1 Legumes
9.4.1.1 Nutritional Properties and Anti-nutritional Factors Issue
9.4.1.2 Sourdough Fermentation and Baked Goods Fortification
9.4.2 Pseudo-cereals
9.4.2.1 Nutritional and Functional Features
9.4.2.2 Potential of the Sourdough Fermentation Applied to Pseudo-cereals
References
10: Nutritional Aspects of Cereal Fermentation with Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeast
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Effects on Cereal Biopolymers
10.2.1 Starch and Glycemic Index
10.2.2 Protein
10.2.3 Biogenic Peptides
10.2.4 Protein Digestibility
10.2.5 Dietary Fiber
10.2.6 Antinutritional Factors
10.3 Micronutrients
10.3.1 Vitamins
10.3.2 Minerals
10.3.3 Phytochemicals
10.4 Microbial Exopolysaccharides
10.5 Sourdough and Gut Microbiota
10.6 Future Prospects
References
11: Sourdough and Gluten-Free Products
11.1 Introduction: Gluten-Free Cereal Products
11.2 Sourdough Bread
11.3 Ecology of GF Fermentations and Development of GF Sourdough Starters
11.4 Proteolysis as a Tool to Improve the Baking Performances of GF Flours
11.5 Proteolysis for Reducing the Toxicity of Wheat Flour
11.6 Application of Legume-Based Flours for GF Bread
11.7 FODMAPs and GF Products
11.8 Exopolysaccharides: A Low-Cost Alternative to Hydrocolloids in GF Breads
11.9 Starch Hydrolysis for Delaying the Staling of GF Bread
11.10 Sourdough as a Natural Tool for Improving the Shelf Life of GF Bread
11.11 Sourdough Fermentation for Enhancing the Health Benefits of GF Bread
11.12 Germination and Sourdough Fermentation for the Development of GF Products
11.13 Conclusions
References
12: Sourdough and Cereal Beverages
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Boza
12.3 Togwa and Mahewu
12.4 Bushera
12.5 Gowé
12.6 Kwete
12.7 Malwa
12.8 Koko Sour Water
12.9 Pozol
12.10 Chicha
12.11 Kishk
12.12 Kvass
12.13 Sourish Shchi
12.14 Hulu-mur and Abreh
12.14.1 Abreh
12.15 Fermented Cereal Beverages with Live Microbiota
References
13: Perspectives
13.1 Microbial Ecology of Sourdough
13.2 Sourdough and Product Quality
13.3 Sourdough and Nutrition
13.4 Industrial and Artisanal Use of Sourdough
References
Index
