Handbook of Welding: Processes, Control and Simulation

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
Welding Metallurgy of Stainless Steels
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. History
3. Welding Methods and Process Parameters
3.1. Welding Technologies
3.2. Fusion Zone and Heat Affected Zone
4. Weldability
5. Austenitic Steels
6. Ferritic Steels
7. Martensitic Steels
8. Duplex Stainless Steels
8.1. Modelling of -Phase Precipitation and Dissolution
8.1.1. Isothermal Dissolution Model
8.1.2. Isothermal Precipitation Model
8.1.3. Non-Isothermal  Dissolution Model
9. Welding of Dissimilar Materials
9.1. Special Phenomena
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2
A Processing Chart for Laser Beam Welding of AA6013-T6 Aerospace Aluminum Alloys
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Laser Materials Processing
1.2. Laser Beam Welding
2. Experimental
3. Results and Discussion
Conclusion
Funding
References
Chapter 3
Electron Beam Welding: Current Trends and Future Scopes
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Why Do We Choose Electron Beam Welding?
3. Working Principle of EBW
EBW Gun Chamber Set-up
4. EBW Machines and Their Construction Details
4.1. Major Components and EB Gun Input Parameters
4.2. The Levels of Vacuum during EBW
4.3. The Possibility of EBW at the Atmospheric Pressure
5. EBW Process Parameters
5.1. Post Weld Parameter After EBW (Microstructure, Fusion Zone
and Heat Affected Zones)
6. Advantages and Limitations
7. Applications
8. Most Recent Development of the EBW
8.1. Electron Beam Welding for Micro and Nano Fabrications
8.2. Micro-EBW
8.3. Application of Micro-EBW
8.4. Special Features of Micro-EBW
1. Pulsed Beam
2. High Definition Imaging Facility
3. Multi-Beam
9. Current Challenges and Unsolved Issues in EBW
Summary and Future Scopes
References
Chapter 4
Welding of Advanced High Strength Steels for Automotive Applications
Abstract
1. Advanced High Strength Steels in the Automotive Industry
2. The Problem of Welding Advanced High Strength Steels
3. Welding Processes for AHSS in Automotive Industry
4. Resistance Spot Welding of AHSS
5. Laser Welding of Ahss
6. Gas Metal Arc Welding of Ahss
7. Brazing Welding of AHSS
8. Friction Stir Welding of AHSS
9. Welding of Dissimilar AHSS-Al Alloys
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5
Weldability of Metal Foams Using Different Processes: A Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Metal Foams: Manufacturing and Mechanical Properties
3. Welding of Metal Foams
3.1. Brazing of Metal Foams
3.2. Diffusion Bonding of Metal Foams
3.3. Friction Stir Welding of Metal Foams
3.4. Laser Welding of Metal Foams
3.5. Metal Inert Gas Welding of Metal Foams
3.6. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding of Metal Foams
3.7. Ultrasonic Welding of Metal Foams
3.8. Concentrated Solar Energy Welding of Metal Foams
4. Modelling of Metal Foam Joints
Conclusion
Funding
References
Chapter 6
Friction Stir Processing and Welding Technologies
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Friction Stir Welding
2.1. Friction Stir Welding Tools
2.2. Friction Stir Welding of Aluminium Alloys
2.3. Friction Stir Welding of Steel
2.4. Friction Stir Welding of Titanium Alloys
3. Polymers and Composites FSW
3.1. Friction Stir Spot Welding (FSSW)
3.2. Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
3.3. Stationary Shoulder Friction Stir Welding (SSFSW)
4. Friction Stir Welding Hybridization
5. Friction Stir Channelling and Processing
5.1. Friction Stir Channelling
5.2. Friction Stir Processing
Conclusion
Funding
References
Chapter 7
Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys: Similar and Dissimilar Materials
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. FSW Process
3. Heat and Material Flow in FSW
4. Discontinuities in FSW
5. Microstructural Evolution
6. Mechanical Properties
7. Residual Stresses
8. Recent Advances and Future Outlooks
Funding
References
Chapter 8
Dissimilar Welding of Aluminum to Magnesium Alloys: Issues and Current Progress
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Incompatibility Issues between Aluminum and Magnesium
3. Laser Welding of AL-Mg
3.1. Current Progress in Laser Welding of Al-Mg
3.2. Laser Weld Bonding
3.3. Addition of Metallic Interlayer/Filler
4. Friction Stir Welding of Al-Mg
Conclusion
Funding
References
Chapter 9
Hybrid Metal Extrusion and Bonding
Abstract
Nomenclature
Symbols
Abbrevations
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of the HYB Process
2.1. Continuous Rotary Extrusion
2.1.1. General Principles
2.1.2. Overall Force Balance for Continuous Rotary Extrusion
2.2. The HYB PinPoint Extruder
2.2.1. Predicted Filler Wire Grip Length
2.2.2. Predicted Length of Extrusion Pressure Build-up Zone
3. The HYB Process Control System
3.1. How the Control System Works
3.2. Examples of Extracted Process Data
4. HYB Tool Design
4.1. Design Challenges
4.2. Examples of Different Pin and Housing Designs
5. The Essential HYB Process Parameters
5.1. Expressions for the Total Power Consumption and the Gross Heat Input
5.2. Expression for the Actual Wire Feed Rate
5.3. Expression for the Spindle Rotational Speed Necessary to Achieve Groove Filling
6. Modelling of the Filler Wire Feeding
6.1. Heating of the Filler Wire During Start-Up of the Extrusion Process
6.2. Calculated Filler Metal Velocity and Stress Fields During Extrusion
6.3. Sliding Conditions Inside the Extrusion Chamber
6.4. Torque Acting on the Drive Spindle During Extrusion
7. Material Flow Pattern and Bonding Mechanisms in the Groove during Aluminium Butt Welding
7.1. Material Flow Pattern
7.2. Bonding Mechanisms
8. Material Flow Pattern and Bonding Mechanisms in the Groove during Aluminium-Steel Butt Welding
8.1. Material Flow Pattern
8.2. Bonding Mechanisms
8.3. Modelling of the IMC Formation
9. Heat Flow Modelling of Aluminium-Aluminium and Aluminium-Steel Butt Welding Using the PinPoint Extruder
9.1. Al-Al Butt Welding
9.2. Al-Steel Butt Welding
10. Status on Mechanical Testing of Different HYB Welds
10.1. Tensile and Impact Properties of a 4 mm Single-Pass AA6082-T6 Butt Weld
10.1.1. Transverse HAZ Hardness Profiles
10.1.2. Tensile Test Results
10.1.3. Impact Test Results
10.2. Fatigue Properties of a 2 mm Single-Pass AA6060-T6 HYB Butt Weld
10.3. Tensile Properties of a 4 mm Two-Pass AA6082-T6 Butt Weld
10.4. Tensile Properties of a 4 mm Al-Steel HYB Butt Weld
11. Recent Advances in Dissimilar Metals Joining
12. Status on Additive Manufacturing
12.1. Additive Manufacturing Employing the HYB Spindle Extruder
12.2. Additive Manufacturing Employing the HYB Pinpoint Extruder
12.3. Future Outlook
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10
Characterization of the Microstructure of Refill Friction Stir Spot Welded Aluminium Alloy Joints
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Principles of the RFSSW Technology
3. The Testing of RFSSW Joints
4. Properties of RFSSW Joints
4.1. Tensile/Shear Strength
4.2. Microstructure of RFSSW Joints
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11
Fundamentals of Thermo-Fluid-Mechanical Modelling in Welding Processes
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Fundamentals of Thermal Phenomena Modelling in Welding
2.1. General Classification of Heated Body Models and Heat Sources Models
2.2. Mathematical Representation of Temperature Field
2.3. Analytical Solutions of the Heat Conduction Equation for Point Source
2.4. Surface and Volumetric Heat Source Models
3. Numerical Modelling of the Thermal Field Taking into Account Solid-Liquid Changes
3.1. Thermal and Fluid Flow Modelling of the Molten Pool
3.2 Governing Equations
3.2.1. Continuity Equation
3.2.2. Energy Conservation Equation
3.2.3. Momentum Conservation Equation
3.3. Initial and Boundary Conditions
4. Quantitative Description of Phase Transformations in Solid-State
4.1. Calculating of Structural Shares during the Single Thermal Cycle
4.2. Structural Shares during Multi-Pass Welding
5. Thermal and Structural Strains, Dilatometric Curves
5.1. Thermal and Structural Strains during Single-Pass Welding
5.2. Thermal and Structural Strains during Multi-Pass Welding
5.3. Dilatometric Curves
6. Strains and Stresses during Welding
6.1. Modeling of Non-Isothermal Plastic Flow of Steel
6.2. Temperature-Dependent Mechanical Properties
6.3. Physical Non-Linearity of the Material in the Elasto-Plastic Range
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12
Role of Numerical Simulations in Weld Analysis
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Simulation of Weld Attributes
2.1. Finite Element Modeling (FEM) Techniques
2.1.1. Modeling of Material Properties at Elevated Temperature
2.1.2. Modeling of Popular Heat Sources and Background Equations
2.2. CFD-Based Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Modeling
2.3. Statistics-Based Modeling
2.4. Machine Learning Algorithm (MLA)-Based Modeling
2.5. Microstructure Modeling
Conclusion
Future Scope
References
Chapter 13
Control of Residual Stress and Mitigation Approaches of Laser Welding-Computational Modeling and Experimental Validations
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Finite Element Modeling
2.1. Basic Assumptions
2.2. Governing Equation of Thermal Analysis
2.3. Stress-Strain Relationships
2.4. Implementation of Numerical Procedure
3. Case Study and Experimental Validation
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Experimentally-Verified Temperature and Residual Stress Field Predictions
4.2. Main Influence Factors of Thermally Induced Residual Stress and Distortion Controls
4.2.1. Influence of Laser Powers on Residual Stress Concentration and Distortion Controls
4.2.2. Effect of External Mechanical Constraint on Thermally-Induced Residual Stress Concentration and Distortion Control
4.2.3. Effect of Preheating on the Residual Stress Concentration and Maximum Out-of-Plane Distortion
4.2.4. Effect of Material Thermal Expansion Coefficients on the Thermo-Mechanical Behaviors of Laser Welds
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 14
Computational Modelling of T-Joint Fillet Welding
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Welding Conditions - Perić et al. (2014) Experiments
2.1.1. Thermal Measurements
2.1.2. Displacement Measurements
2.2. Finite Element Modelling
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Thermal Analysis
3.1.1. Full Ramp Sensitivity
3.2. Structural Analysis
3.3. Bead Removal/Deposition Method
Conclusion
Funding
References
Chapter 15
Recent Advances in Controlling, Monitoring and Optimization of the Friction Stir Welding Process
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The Friction Stir Welding Process
2.1. Operating Principles
2.1.1. Tools
2.2. Relevant Applications of FSW Process on 5XXX Series Aluminium Alloys
3. Thermography for Process Monitoring: Principles and Applications
3.1. InfraRed Theory
3.2. Passive and Active Thermography
4. Optimization of the FSW Process of AA 5754-H111
5. Material and Methods
5.1. Friction Stir Welding Material and Set-Up
5.2. Thermal Measurements
5.3. Conventional Methods for FSW Joints Quality Evaluation
5.3.1. Non-Destructive Tests: Visual and Thermographic Tests
5.3.2. Destructive Tests: Tensile Tests
6. Results
6.1. Visual Inspection and Micrography of the FSW Welded Joints
6.2. Mechanical Properties Assessment
6.2.1. Experimental Plan 1
6.2.2. Experimental Plan 2
6.3. Thermal Behavior of Joints: Analysis of Thermographic Data
6.3.1. Estimation of the Quality of Welding Process by Using Tmax and MSHC
6.3.2. Correlation between Mechanical Properties of the FSW Joints and Thermal Indexes
6.3.3. Structural Integrity Assessment by Using Thermal Index R2
6.4. Methodology of Artificial Neural Network Application and Modeling Data
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16
Quality Assurance of Welded Construction of Industrial Boilers
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Approach to Design, Interpretation, and Prior Checks
2.2. Characterization of the Steam Boiler
2.3. Materials, Manufacturing and Inspection Criteria
2.4. Selection of the Conformity Assessment Module
2.5. Selection of Welding Processes and Filler Metals
2.6. Design of Welded Joints
3. Results
3.1. Specification and Dimensioning of Joints
3.2. Determination of Weldability Parameters
3.3. Determination of Manufacturing Criteria
3.4. Determination of Inspection Requirements
3.5. Specification of Preliminary Welding Procedures
3.6. Qualification of Welding Procedures
3.7. Qualified Welding Procedure Specifications
3.8. Qualification of Welders
3.9. Manufacturing of Test Plates
3.10. Inspection and Testing Plan
Conclusion
Funding
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 17
Quality Assessment in the Manufacture of a Pressure Piping by Welding
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. CE Marking of Pressure Equipment
2.1. Historical Perspective
2.2. The New Legislative Framework
2.3. Harmonized Standards
2.4. Conformity Assessment
2.5. Conformity Assessment Bodies and Notified Bodies
2.6. Pressure Equipment
2.6.1. Scope of Application
2.6.2. PED Conformity Assessment
2.6.3. Evaluation Procedure
3. Welded Construction Piping Manufacture
3.1. Formaldehyde Plant Project
3.1.1. Scope
3.1.2. Basic Documentation
3.1.3. Service and Design Conditions
3.1.4. Documentation
3.2. Construction File
3.2.1. Drawings
3.2.2. Inspection and Test Plan
3.2.3. Traceability
3.2.4. Certificates of Materials and Specific Assessment
3.2.5. Welding Procedure Specifications
3.2.6. Qualifications of Welding Procedures
3.2.7. Qualifications of Welders
3.2.8. NDT Operator Certificates
3.2.9. Non-Destructive Test Reports
3.2.10. Welding Plan
3.2.11. Pressure Test
3.2.12. Nameplate
3.2.13. Declaration of Conformity
Conclusion
Funding
Acknowledgments
References
About the Editors
Index
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