Handbook of Weather, Climate and Water: Dynamics, Climate, Physical Meteorology, Weather Systems, and Measurements

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: HANDBOOK OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND WATER - Dynamics, Climate, Physical Meteorology, Weather Systems, and Measurements......Page 3
ISBN 0471214906......Page 4
2 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS 7......Page 5
7 PREDICTABILITY AND CHAOS 83......Page 6
11 PROCESSES DETERMINING LAND SURFACE CLIMATE 135......Page 7
15 PHYSICAL ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE 177......Page 8
19 RADIATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE: FOUNDATIONS 301......Page 9
22 ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AND LIGHTNING 407......Page 10
26 LARGE-SCALE ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEMS 509......Page 11
30 TROPICAL PRECIPITATING SYSTEMS 621......Page 12
34 CHALLENGES OF MEASUREMENTS 695......Page 13
37 CONSEQUENCE OF INSTRUMENT AND SITING CHANGES 747......Page 14
41 DATA VALIDITY IN THE NATIONAL ARCHIVE 813......Page 15
45 REGULATORY APPROACHES TO QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAMS 861......Page 16
50 CHALLENGE OF SNOW MEASUREMENTS 927......Page 17
INDEX 951......Page 18
PREFACE......Page 19
DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 21
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 22
SECTION 1 DYNAMIC METEOROLOGY......Page 26
CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW—ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS......Page 28
REFERENCES......Page 31
1 DESCRIPTION OF ATMOSPHERIC BEHAVIOR......Page 32
2 MASS CONTINUITY......Page 34
Budget of Constituents......Page 35
3 MOMENTUM BUDGET......Page 36
Momentum Budget in a Rotating Reference Frame......Page 37
Component Equations in Spherical Coordinates......Page 39
4 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS......Page 43
REFERENCES......Page 45
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 46
2 CIRCULATION AND VORTICITY: DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES......Page 47
3 POTENTIAL VORTICITY: DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES......Page 53
4 DYNAMICAL CONSIDERATIONS: KELVIN’S CIRCULATION THEOREM, ROTATION, AND PV DYNAMICS......Page 56
5 CONCLUSION......Page 60
6 APPENDIX: MATHEMATICAL SUMMARY......Page 62
REFERENCES......Page 63
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 64
2 QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC THEORY......Page 65
3 BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY AND FRONTOGENESIS......Page 68
4 STATIONARY PLANETARY WAVES......Page 74
5 ISENTROPIC POTENTIAL VORTICITY......Page 78
REFERENCES......Page 81
1 THERMALLY DIRECT CIRCULATIONS AND MONSOONS......Page 82
2 EL NIÑO–SOUTHERN OSCILLATION......Page 84
3 SUBSEASONAL TROPICAL ATMOSPHERIC WAVES......Page 88
REFERENCES......Page 92
1 TWO-DIMENSIONAL AND QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC TURBULENCE......Page 94
2 ENERGY AND ENSTROPHY CASCADE......Page 99
3 COHERENT STRUCTURES......Page 101
4 STRATIFIED THREE-DIMENSIONAL TURBULENCE AND WAVES......Page 102
REFERENCES......Page 105
CHAPTER 7 PREDICTABILITY AND CHAOS......Page 108
1 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS AND CHAOS......Page 110
2 STOCHASTIC DYNAMICS......Page 113
3 ENSEMBLE FORECASTING......Page 114
4 SEASONAL TO CLIMATE PREDICTABILITY......Page 116
REFERENCES......Page 118
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 120
2 PRIMITIVE EQUATIONS, GLOBAL AND REGIONAL MODELS, AND NONHYDROSTATIC MODELS......Page 122
3 DATA ASSIMILATION: DETERMINATION OF INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR NWP PROBLEM......Page 124
4 OPERATIONAL NUMERICAL PREDICTION......Page 128
5 THE FUTURE......Page 135
REFERENCES......Page 137
SECTION 2 THE CLIMATE SYSTEM......Page 142
1 THE ATMOSPHERE......Page 144
2 GLOBAL AVERAGE ENERGY BALANCE......Page 145
3 THE ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER......Page 148
5 CLIMATE OF THE STRATOSPHERE......Page 149
7 THE OCEAN......Page 151
REFERENCES......Page 152
2 PROPERTIES OF THE OCEAN AND PROCESSES IN THE OCEAN......Page 154
3 HOW THE OCEAN INTERACTS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE TO AFFECT THE CLIMATE......Page 155
5 MODELING THE OCEAN......Page 156
6 THE FUTURE OF THE OCEAN IN CLIMATE......Page 157
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 160
2 SURFACE ENERGY FLUXES AND TEMPERATURE......Page 161
3 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE......Page 163
4 VEGETATION......Page 164
5 COUPLING TO ATMOSPHERIC MODELS......Page 165
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 166
3 IS THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE CHANGING?......Page 167
4 IS THE ATMOSPHERIC/OCEANIC CIRCULATION CHANGING?......Page 171
5 IS THE WEATHER AND CLIMATE BECOMING MORE EXTREME OR VARIABLE?......Page 172
6 IS THE RADIATIVE FORCING OF THE PLANET CHANGING?......Page 173
7 WHAT CAN WE DO TO IMPROVE OUR ABILITY TO DETECT CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE?......Page 175
REFERENCES......Page 177
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 180
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 186
1 ENSO EVENTS......Page 188
2 THE TROPICAL PACIFIC OCEAN–ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM......Page 189
3 INTERANNUAL VARIATIONS IN CLIMATE......Page 190
4 MECHANISMS OF ENSO......Page 194
5 OBSERVING ENSO......Page 195
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 197
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 198
SECTION 3 PHYSICAL METEOROLOGY......Page 200
1 OVERVIEW......Page 202
2 ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS......Page 203
Basic Concepts, Definitions, and Systems of Units......Page 204
Zeroth Principle of Thermodynamics: Definition of Temperature (T)......Page 207
Ideal Gas and Equation of State for the Atmosphere......Page 209
Work by Expansion......Page 211
First Law (or Principle) of Thermodynamics......Page 213
Second Law (or Principle) of Thermodynamics......Page 219
REFERENCES......Page 231
1 LATENT HEATS —KIRCHOFF’S EQUATION......Page 232
2 GIBBS PHASE RULE......Page 234
3 PHASE EQUILIBRIUM FOR WATER......Page 235
4 CLAUSIUS–CLAPEYRON EQUATION......Page 238
Equilibrium Between Liquid and Vapor: Clausius–Clapeyron Equation......Page 240
Computation of Saturation Vapor Pressure (es and esi)......Page 241
5 GENERAL THEORY FOR MIXED-PHASE PROCESSES WITHIN OPEN SYSTEMS......Page 242
6 ENTHALPY FORM OF THE FIRST–SECOND LAW......Page 248
Mixing Ratio and Speci.c Humidity......Page 250
Dew Point Temperature (Td)......Page 251
Wet-Bulb Temperature (Tw)......Page 252
Potential Temperature for Moist Air (θ)......Page 253
Equivalent Potential Temperature (θe)......Page 254
10 PSEUDO-ADIABATIC PROCESS (θep)......Page 257
11 NEGLECTING HEAT STORAGE......Page 258
12 HYDROSTATIC BALANCE AND HYPSOMETRIC EQUATION......Page 259
Dry and Moist Static Energy (h and hd)......Page 260
REFERENCES......Page 261
Classical Thermodynamic Diagrams......Page 262
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Dry Adiabats......Page 263
Types of Thermodynamic Diagrams......Page 264
2 ATMOSPHERIC STATIC STABILITY AND APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC DIAGRAMS TO THE ATMOSPHERE......Page 266
Environmental Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 267
Critical Levels on a Thermodynamic Diagram......Page 270
Diagnosing Stability and Parcel Path......Page 274
Inversions......Page 276
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 278
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 280
Sources, Sinks, and Formation Mechanisms......Page 281
Number Concentration, Mass, and Size Distribution......Page 282
Homogeneous Nucleation of Water Droplets in Humid Air......Page 287
Heterogeneous Nucleation of Water Droplets......Page 289
Homogeneous Nucleation of Ice Particles in Supercooled Water Droplets......Page 293
Heterogeneous Nucleation of Ice Crystals......Page 296
4 FORMATION OF RAIN IN WARM CLOUDS......Page 299
Growth of a Single Droplet by Condensation......Page 300
Growth of Population of Droplets by Condensation......Page 302
Proposed Mechanisms for Broadening of Droplet Spectra......Page 303
Growth by Coalescence......Page 306
5 GROWTH OF ICE PARTICLES IN ATMOSPHERE......Page 312
Diffusional Growth of Ice Particles......Page 313
Ice Particle Growth by Accretion......Page 317
Ice Particle Aggregation......Page 319
Ice Particle Concentrations and Evidence for Ice Multiplication......Page 320
LIST OF SYMBOLS......Page 321
REFERENCES......Page 323
Why Study Radiation?......Page 326
Nature of Radiation......Page 327
2 FOUNDATIONS......Page 328
What is Scattering?......Page 0
Describing Radiation......Page 329
3 SOURCES OF RADIATION......Page 331
The Planck Function......Page 332
Total Amount of Energy Emitted......Page 333
Emissivity, Energy Conservation, Brightness Temperature......Page 334
Spectral Lines: Wavelengths of Absorption and Emission......Page 335
Line Shape......Page 338
Doppler Broadening of Absorption Lines......Page 339
Pressure Broadening of Absorption Lines......Page 340
Radiative Transfer Equation for Absorption......Page 341
Computing Optical Depth along Inhomogeneous Paths......Page 344
Radiative Transfer Equation for Emission and Absorption......Page 345
5 FULL RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATION, INCLUDING ABSORPTION, EMISSION, AND SCATTERING......Page 346
Accounting for Scattering......Page 347
6 SINGLE SCATTERING......Page 348
Computing Scattering from a Single Particle......Page 349
Scattering by Round Particles: Lorenz–Mie Theory......Page 351
Scattering by Arbitrary Particles......Page 353
Integrating over a Particle Size Distribution......Page 355
Relating Cloud Optical and Physical Parameters......Page 356
7 SIMPLIFYING THE RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATION......Page 357
Delta Scaling......Page 359
Eddington’s Solution......Page 360
Computing Flux: Two-Stream Model......Page 362
9 SOLVING RADIATIVE TRANSFER EQUATION COMPLETELY......Page 363
Adding–Doubling Method......Page 364
Radiative Transfer in Two and Three Dimensions......Page 365
10 FROM THEORY TO APPLICATIONS......Page 366
2 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS......Page 368
The Sun and Its Relationship to Earth......Page 369
Sun–Earth Astronomical Relationships......Page 370
The Solar Constant......Page 372
Surface Radiative Properties......Page 375
Radiatively Active Gases in the Atmosphere......Page 376
Radiative Heating under Cloudy Conditions......Page 377
Volcanic Aerosols......Page 382
4 TOP-OF-ATMOSPHERE RADIATION BUDGETS......Page 385
Earth’s Top of the Atmosphere Radiation Budget......Page 387
Cloud-Radiative Forcing......Page 394
5 RADIATION AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT......Page 395
Clouds and the Greenhouse Effect......Page 398
Radiative Equilibrium......Page 399
Remote Sensing the Surface......Page 401
Remote Sensing of Clouds......Page 404
Remote-Sensing Atmospheric Temperature Pro.les......Page 406
Remote-Sensing Atmospheric Moisture......Page 409
2 WHAT IS A CLOUD?......Page 412
3 ORIGIN OF THE PRESENT-DAY CLOUD CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM......Page 413
4 THE CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS......Page 414
4.1 High Clouds......Page 416
4.2 Middle-Level Clouds......Page 418
4.3 Low Stratiform Clouds......Page 424
4.4 Convective Clouds......Page 425
REFERENCES......Page 429
1 GLOBAL ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT......Page 432
2 WHAT IS LIGHTNING?......Page 434
3 HUMAN COST OF LIGHTNING......Page 437
4 ECONOMIC COSTS OF LIGHTNING......Page 438
5 CLIMATOLOGY OF LIGHTNING......Page 439
6 LIGHTNING DETECTION......Page 441
7 LIGHTNING PROTECTION......Page 442
8 IMPACTS OF LIGHTNING UPON THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE......Page 445
9 THEORIES ON TRANSIENT LUMINOUS EVENTS......Page 450
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 452
REFERENCES......Page 453
Basic Physics and Chemistry of the Precipitation Processes......Page 458
Basic Hail Processes......Page 460
Rain and Snow......Page 461
3 SOME SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN THE PAST 25 YEARS......Page 463
Hygroscopic Seeding of Convective Clouds......Page 464
Glaciogenic Seeding Effects in Convective Clouds......Page 466
Snowpack Augmentation......Page 467
Hail Suppression......Page 468
Advances in Technology......Page 469
Numerical Modeling Capabilities......Page 471
Other Advances and General Comments......Page 472
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 474
REFERENCES......Page 475
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 478
Brief History......Page 479
Molecular Scattering and the Blue of the Sky......Page 481
Spectrum and Color of Skylight......Page 482
Variation of Sky Color and Brightness......Page 483
Sunrise and Sunset......Page 487
Nature of Polarized Light......Page 489
Polarization by Molecular Scattering......Page 490
Salient Differences Between Particles and Molecules......Page 492
5 ATMOSPHERIC VISIBILITY......Page 499
6 ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION......Page 501
Terrestrial Mirages......Page 502
Extraterrestrial Mirages......Page 505
The Green Flash......Page 507
7 SCATTERING BY SINGLE WATER DROPLETS......Page 508
Coronas and Iridescent Clouds......Page 509
Rainbows......Page 510
The Glory......Page 513
8 SCATTERING BY SINGLE ICE CRYSTALS......Page 514
Sun Dogs and Halos......Page 515
Cloud Optical Thickness......Page 519
Givers and Takers of Light......Page 520
GLOSSARY......Page 522
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 523
SECTION 4 WEATHER SYSTEMS......Page 526
2 FOUNDATIONS OF WEATHER FORECASTING......Page 528
4 WEATHER AND ENERGY......Page 530
5 FORECASTING......Page 532
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 533
2 HORIZONTAL BALANCE......Page 534
3 VERTICAL BALANCE......Page 535
4 POTENTIAL VORTICITY......Page 536
Characteristics of Fronts......Page 538
Dynamical Aspects of Fronts......Page 542
Observed Characteristics......Page 544
Statistical Climatology......Page 551
Vertical Structure and Dynamics of Extratropical Cyclones......Page 553
7 UPPER-TROPOSPHERIC JETS AND TROUGHS......Page 556
Jet Streams and Jet Streaks......Page 557
Short and Long Waves......Page 562
8 WATER VAPOR IMAGERY......Page 564
REFERENCES......Page 566
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 568
2 COLD AIR......Page 569
3 WIND......Page 570
4 PRECIPITATION......Page 574
5 SUMMARY......Page 584
REFERENCES......Page 585
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 586
Thermally Driven Flows......Page 587
Dynamically Driven Flows......Page 589
Orographic Precipitation......Page 592
Lake Effect Snow......Page 594
4 OTHER IMPACTS OF SURFACE INHOMOGENEITIES......Page 595
5 PREDICTABILITY OF TERRAIN-FORCED MESOSCALE CIRCULATIONS......Page 596
REFERENCES......Page 597
2 CLIMATOLOGY OF SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS......Page 600
Tornadoes......Page 601
Hail......Page 602
Damaging Convective Wind Gusts......Page 603
Flash Floods......Page 604
Lightning......Page 605
Ingredients of Deep Moist Convection......Page 607
Types of Convective Storms......Page 611
Mesoscale Convective Systems......Page 612
Mesoscale Convective Complexes......Page 613
Squall Lines and Bow Echoes......Page 614
Definition......Page 617
Supercell Structure and Evolution......Page 618
Origins of Supercell Structure......Page 619
Hazardous Weather Associated with Supercells......Page 620
Variations on the Theme......Page 621
6 TORNADOES......Page 622
Use of Radar in Observing Severe Storms......Page 629
Storm Structure Revealed by Radar Observations......Page 632
Future Advances......Page 635
8 SEVERE STORM FORECASTING......Page 636
FOR FURTHER READING......Page 644
1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TROPICAL AND MIDLATITUDE CONVECTION......Page 646
3 SQUALL LINE AND MCS STRUCTURE......Page 649
6 CANDIDATE SYSTEMS THAT ORGANIZE RAINFALL AND MAIN CONTRIBUTORS TO RAINFALL IN SELECTED REGIONS......Page 653
Total Rainfall Distribution......Page 657
MCS Distributions Using Passive Microwave Measurements......Page 658
Using Lightning Measurements......Page 662
REFERENCES......Page 663
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 666
2 CLIMATOLOGY......Page 671
3 TROPICAL CYCLOGENESIS......Page 675
Primary and Secondary Circulations......Page 677
Inner Core—Eyewall and Eye......Page 680
Outer Structure and Rain Bands......Page 687
5 MOTION......Page 690
6 INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT......Page 691
7 INTERACTION WITH THE OCEAN......Page 695
8 TROPICAL CYCLONE RAINFALL......Page 697
9 ENERGETICS......Page 698
10 TROPICAL CYCLONE–RELATED HAZARDS......Page 699
SUGGESTED READING......Page 700
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 702
2 FORECAST PROCESS......Page 704
3 FORECASTING 12 h TO 7 DAYS......Page 706
4 FORECASTING 0 TO 12 h......Page 710
SECTION 5 MEASUREMENTS......Page 714
CHAPTER 33 ATMOSPHERIC MEASUREMENTS......Page 716
1 ETHICS......Page 720
All That Is Labeled Data Is Not Gold......Page 721
Generation......Page 722
Implementation......Page 725
Background......Page 726
Definitions......Page 727
Discussion......Page 730
4 VALUE OF COMMON SENSE......Page 732
REFERENCES......Page 734
CHAPTER 35 MEASUREMENT IN THE ATMOSPHERE......Page 736
1 COMBINATION OF MEASUREMENTS......Page 737
2 PARTICLE MEASUREMENT......Page 738
3 INSTRUMENTATION AND MODELING......Page 742
REFERENCES......Page 744
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 746
2 TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY......Page 747
3 TEMPERATURE SITING STANDARDS......Page 751
4 PRECIPITATION......Page 752
5 PRECIPITATION STANDARDS......Page 755
6 WIND......Page 756
7 PRESSURE......Page 758
8 CLOUD HEIGHT EQUIPMENT......Page 760
9 VISIBILITY......Page 761
11 TELEMETRY AND AUTOMATION......Page 764
12 IMPORTANCE OF STANDARDIZATION AND CONTINUITY......Page 766
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 769
2 EARLY MODIFICATIONS......Page 772
3 NEW CONCERNS......Page 775
4 INITIAL TUCSON TEST RESULTS......Page 776
5 OVERALL TEST RESULTS......Page 777
6 AN OVERCONSERVATIVE DATA QUALITY CHECK......Page 779
7 RELOCATION BIAS......Page 781
8 DATA CONTINUITY STUDIES......Page 783
9 INTERFACE WITH OUTSIDE GROUPS......Page 785
REFERENCES......Page 786
1 BACKGROUND......Page 788
2 DEVELOPMENT......Page 789
3 PLASTIC FABRICATION......Page 791
4 CUSTOMER INPUT......Page 793
6 WIDESPREAD ACCEPTANCE......Page 794
8 DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS......Page 796
9 JUNIOR MODEL......Page 797
10 CONTINUING DESIGN MODIFICATIONS......Page 798
11 TESTING & CERTIFICATION......Page 799
12 MARINE MODEL......Page 800
13 SERIAL OUTPUT......Page 801
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 802
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 804
2 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM......Page 805
3 DATALOGGER......Page 807
Low-Power Microprocessors......Page 809
Self-Contained Measurement Circuitry......Page 810
Voltage Measurements......Page 811
Precision Excitation......Page 813
Programming Versatility......Page 814
Internal Data Storage......Page 815
Reliability......Page 816
On-Site Data Storage......Page 817
Dedicated Cable......Page 818
Cellular Telephone......Page 819
Single-Frequency RF......Page 820
Satellite......Page 821
5 SUMMARY......Page 823
REFERENCES......Page 824
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 826
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program......Page 827
Instrument Platforms......Page 828
Communication Systems......Page 829
3 CALIBRATION......Page 832
4 QUALITY ASSURANCE......Page 833
Data Monitoring......Page 835
Documentation......Page 836
REFERENCES......Page 837
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 838
2 TEMPERATURE......Page 839
3 PRECIPITATION......Page 841
4 SNOW......Page 845
5 WIND......Page 847
6 WEATHER......Page 850
7 SUMMARY......Page 851
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 852
2 DATA NEEDED......Page 854
Expert Testimony......Page 855
Visibility......Page 857
Winds......Page 858
Clouds......Page 860
Changing Environment......Page 861
4 WITNESS CREDIBILITY......Page 862
REFERENCES......Page 863
2 RECENT HISTORY OF METEOROLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS BY ELECTRIC UTILITIES......Page 866
3 MEASUREMENT REQUIREMENTS......Page 867
5 DATA ACQUISITION......Page 868
6 EXAMPLE OF METEOROLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS BY AN ELECTRIC UTILITY......Page 869
7 EXAMPLE OF DATA PROCESSING PROCEDURES......Page 871
REFERENCES......Page 872
1 MONITORING PLAN......Page 874
2 QUALITY ASSURANCE PROJECT PLAN (QAPP)......Page 875
3 CASE STUDIES......Page 876
4 CONCLUSION......Page 883
REFERENCES......Page 884
1 BACKGROUND......Page 886
2 STANDARDIZATION AND REGULATORY GUIDANCE......Page 888
Operator Training......Page 889
Routine Operations and Maintenance......Page 890
REFERENCES......Page 891
CHAPTER 46 MEASURING GLOBAL TEMPERATURE......Page 894
2 INSTRUMENTAL RECORD OF SURFACE TEMPERATURES......Page 896
4 UPPER AIR TEMPERATURES......Page 899
5 CONCLUSION......Page 904
REFERENCES......Page 906
1 SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE......Page 910
2 SURFACE WIND......Page 914
REFERENCES......Page 916
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 920
2 BASIC RADAR OPERATION......Page 921
Choice of Wavelength: Attenuation Versus Antenna Size......Page 923
Transmitter Type......Page 924
Scattering......Page 925
Propagation Paths......Page 927
Data Processing......Page 928
4 GOAL: TRUE WIND VECTORS......Page 933
Dual and Multiple Doppler......Page 936
Bistatic Radars......Page 938
Dual and Multiple Polarization Radars......Page 939
Mobile Radars......Page 941
Rapid Scan Radars......Page 943
Wind Profilers......Page 945
1 MILITARY PERSPECTIVE......Page 946
2 RESEARCH ISSUES......Page 947
Atmospheric Dynamics......Page 948
3 PROTOTYPE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS......Page 949
5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 950
1 INTRODUCTION—CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPORTANCE OF SNOW......Page 952
2 MEASUREMENTS OF SNOW......Page 954
3 PROPERTIES OF SNOW THAT MAKE BASIC MEASUREMENTS DIFFICULT......Page 956
4 PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING SNOWFALL, SNOW DEPTH, AND WATER CONTENT......Page 957
Precipitation......Page 958
Snowfall......Page 963
Snow Depth......Page 966
Snow Water Equivalent (SWE)......Page 967
5 CONTRIBUTION OF TECHNOLOGY TO SNOW MEASUREMENTS......Page 968
Passive Microwave Remote Sensing......Page 970
Water Content Sensors......Page 971
6 SUMMARY OF SNOW DATA CONTINUITY......Page 972
REFERENCES......Page 973
INDEX (with page links)......Page 976