Handbook of Sustainable Polymers for Additive Manufacturing

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Author Biography
List of Abbreviations
Glossary of Terms and Definitions
References
1. Sustainable Polymers for Additive Manufacturing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Polymers
1.3 Plastics
1.4 Important Properties of Plastics
1.5 Thermosets, Thermoplastics, Elastomers
1.6 Liquid-Crystalline Polymers (LCPs)
1.7 Polymer Matrix Composite Materials (PMCs)
1.7.1 Introduction
1.7.2 PMCs for AM
1.7.3 FRPCs for ME
1.7.4 FRPCs for VP
1.7.5 FRPCs for ShL
1.7.6 FRPCs for PBF
1.8 Natural Polymers
1.9 Market Data for Polymers
1.10 Biobased Polymers
1.11 Sustainable Polymers
1.12 Degradable, Biodegradable, Recyclable, Compostable Polymers
1.13 Properties and Market of Biobased Polymers
1.14 Bioplastics
1.15 Near Future of Sustainable Polymers
Further Readings
Additive Manufacturing:
Polymers:
References
2. Additive Manufacturing and Its Polymeric Feedstocks
2.1 Introduction to Additive Manufacturing (AM)
2.2 AM Feedstocks
2.3 Material Extrusion (ME)
2.3.1 Process Description
2.3.2 ME Print Parameters
2.3.3 Polymers for ME
2.3.4 Anisotropy of Printed Parts
2.3.5 Effect of Build Orientation on Strength of Printed Parts
2.3.6 Pellet-Based Extrusion
2.3.7 Bioextrusion (BE)
2.3.8 Microextrusion Printing (μEP)
2.3.9 Liquid Deposition Modeling (LDM)
2.3.10 Contour Crafting (CC) and Cement and Concrete Printing
2.3.11 Continuous Filament Fabrication (CFF)
2.3.12 Water-Based Robotic Fabrication (WBRF)
2.4 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
2.4.1 Process Description
2.4.2 Polymers for PBF
2.4.3 Anisotropy
2.5 Vat Photopolymerization (VP)
2.5.1 Process Description
2.5.1.1 Stereolithography (SL)
2.5.1.1.1 Bottom-up SL
2.5.1.1.2 Top-down SL
2.5.1.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
2.5.1.3 Micro VP
2.5.1.4 Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP™)
2.5.1.5 Daylight Polymer Printing (DPP)
2.5.1.6 Two-Photon VP (2PVP)
2.5.1.7 Lithography-Based Metal Manufacturing (LMM)
2.5.2 Polymers for VP
2.5.2.1 Introduction
2.5.2.2 Polymers for VP
2.6 Binder Jetting (BJ)
2.6.1 Process Description
2.6.2 Feedstocks for BJ
2.6.3 Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
2.6.4 Three Dimensional Printing™ (3DP™)
2.7 Material Jetting (MJ)
2.7.1 Process Description
2.7.2 Commercial MJ Printers
2.7.3 Reactive Inkjet Printing (RIJ)
2.7.4 Feedstocks for MJ
2.8 Direct Energy Deposition (DED)
2.8.1 Process Description and Versions
2.8.2 Arevo® Process
2.9 Sheet Lamination (ShL)
2.9.1 Process Description
2.9.2 Feedstocks and Biobased Alternatives
2.9.2.1 Current Feedstocks
2.9.2.2 Sustainable Feedstocks
2.10 Direct Writing (DW)
2.10.1 Process Description
2.10.2 Ink-Based DW
2.10.2.1 Introduction
2.10.2.2 Nozzle Ink-Based DW
2.10.2.3 Quill Ink-Based DW
2.10.2.4 Aerosol Ink-Based DW
2.10.2.5 Inkjet Printing DW
2.10.3 Laser Transfer DW (LTDW)
2.10.4 Thermal Spray DW
2.10.5 Beam Deposition DW
2.11 4D Printing (4DP)
2.11.1 Process Description
2.11.2 Polymers for 4DP
2.11.2.1 Introduction
2.11.2.2 Hydrogels (HGs)
2.11.2.3 Shape-Memory Polymers (SMPs)
2.11.2.4 Printed Active Composites (PACs)
2.11.2.5 Near Future for 4DP
2.12 3D Bioprinting (BP)
2.12.1 Introduction
2.12.2 Extrusion-Based BP (EBP)
2.13 Fiber Encapsulation AM (FEAM)
2.14 Present and Future Sustainability of AM
2.15 Printer Selection
2.16 Near Future of AM
2.16.1 Introduction
2.16.2 Production
2.16.3 Materials
2.16.4 Polymers
2.16.4.1 General Requirements
2.16.4.2 SPs for AM
2.16.4.3 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
2.16.4.4 Polymer-Based Nanocomposites (PNCs)
2.16.4.5 Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs)
2.16.4.6 Liquid-Crystalline Polymers (LCPs)
2.16.4.7 Other Polymers for AM
2.16.4.8 Properties of Polymers for AM in Near Future
2.16.5 Processes and Printers
2.16.6 Education and Training
2.16.7 Areas of Applications
2.16.7.1 Introduction
2.16.7.2 Aerospace
2.16.7.3 Automotive
2.16.7.4 Biomedical and Pharmaceutical
2.16.7.5 Architecture, Buildings, and Construction
Further Readings
References
3. Poly(Lactic Acid)
3.1 Overview of Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA)
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Applications
3.1.3 Current and Future Market
3.1.4 Advantages of PLA
3.1.5 Disadvantages of PLA
3.2 Production of PLA
3.3 Properties of PLA
3.4 PLA Feedstocks for FFF
3.5 Commercial Unfilled PLA Filaments for FFF
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Anisotropy
3.5.3 Infill
3.5.4 Films vs. Dumbbells
3.5.5 Precision of Property Values
3.5.6 Electrical Properties
3.5.7 Comparison of PLA to Fossil-Based Polymers
3.5.8 Recycled PLA
3.5.9 Major Suppliers of PLA Filaments and Their Products
3.6 Experimental PLA Powder
3.7 Commercial Composite PLA Filaments
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 Glass-Filled PLA
3.7.3 Metal-Filled PLA
3.7.3.1 Comparison
3.7.3.2 Analysis of Commercial Metal-Filled PLA Filaments
3.7.4 Carbon-Filled PLA Filaments
3.7.4.1 Commercial Carbon-Filled PLA Filaments
3.7.4.2 Experimental Carbon-Filled PLA Filaments
3.7.5 Aramid-PLA Filament
3.8 Experimental PLA Composite Filaments
3.9 Properties of PLA Feedstocks for AM
3.9.1 Introduction
3.9.2 Porosity
3.9.3 Moisture
3.9.4 Tensile properties
3.9.4.1 Effect of Build Orientation
3.9.4.2 Effect of Printers
3.9.4.3 Effect of Interfacial Bonding Strength between Adjacent Filaments
3.9.4.4 Mechanical Models of Strength and Modulus of Printed PLA
3.9.5 Compressive Properties
3.9.6 Shear Properties
3.9.7 Impact Properties
3.9.8 Fracture Toughness
3.9.9 Fatigue Properties
3.9.10 Flexural Properties
3.9.11 Effect of Interlayer and Intralayer Cohesion
3.9.12 Effect of Temperature
3.9.13 Effect of Filament Color
3.9.14 Crystallinity
3.9.15 Chemical Composition
3.9.16 Thermal Properties before and after Printing
3.9.17 Water Uptake
3.9.18 Plasticizers
3.9.19 Effect of Speed and Frequency of Applied Load
3.9.20 Creep and Stress Relaxation
3.10 Properties of Recycled PLA
References
4. Polyamide
4.1 Overview of Sustainable and Non-Sustainable Polyamides (Pas)
4.2 Castor Oil (CO)
4.3 Overview of PA 11
4.4 Commercial PA 11 Grades for AM
4.4.1 Overview
4.4.2 Rilsan® Invent PA11
4.5 Experimental Filament in PA 11 for FFF
4.6 Process Optimization for Laser Printing PA 11
4.7 Tension, Fracture, and Fatigue Properties of PA 11 for PBF
4.8 PA 11 Nanocomposites
4.9 Experimental Blends of PA 11
References
5. Polyhydroxyalkanoates
5.1 Overview of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
5.2 Commercial PHAs for AM
5.3 R&D in PHAs for AM
Further Readings
References
6. Wood-Filled Feedstocks
6.1 Wood Overview
6.2 Advances in Feedstocks and Processes for Wood AM
6.3 Commercial Wood/Polymers for AM
6.4 Wood for AM
6.5 Experimental Wood-Filled Composites for AM
6.5.1 Introduction
6.5.2 Wood Content. Matrix Materials
6.5.3 Wood/Concrete for AM
6.5.4 Wood/PLA Compatibility and Interfacial Adhesion
6.5.5 Surface Properties, Self-Shaping Design, New Process
6.5.6 Recycled Wood Furniture Waste
Further Readings
References
7. Cellulose
7.1 Overview of Cellulose
7.2 Commercial AM Materials Containing Cellulose
7.3 Experimental Cellulose for AM
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Cellulose Powder and Paper
7.3.2.1 Cellulose as Substrate
7.3.2.2 Cellulose as Ingredient
7.3.3 Cellulose Esters
7.3.3.1 Introduction
7.3.3.2 Cellulose Acetate (CA)
7.3.4 Cellulose Ethers
7.3.4.1 Introduction
7.3.4.2 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC)
7.3.4.3 Ethyl Cellulose (EC)
7.3.4.4 Hydroxyethyl Cellulose (HEC)
7.3.4.5 Hydroxypropyl Cellulose (HPC)
7.3.4.6 Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose (HPMC)
7.3.4.7 Methylcellulose (MC)
7.3.5 Cellulose/PLA
7.3.6 Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC)
7.3.6.1 Introduction
7.3.6.2 Commercial MCC
7.3.6.3 Experimental Formulations of MCC for AM
7.3.7 Nanocellulose (NC)
7.3.7.1 Introduction
7.3.7.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
7.3.7.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
References
8. Bamboo
8.1 Overview of Bamboo
8.2 Bamboo Properties
8.3 Commercial Bamboo Filaments for AM
8.4 Experimental Bamboo-Filled PLA Filaments for AM
References
9. Lignin
9.1 Overview of Lignin
9.2 Market and Applications of Lignin
9.3 Commercial Lignin AM Filaments
9.4 Experimental Lignin Blends
9.5 Experimental Lignin-Filled Feedstocks For Am
9.6 Near Future of Lignin for AM
References
10. Trees and Natural Fibers
10.1 Feedstocks from Trees and Natural Fibers
10.2 Cork
10.2.1 Overview of Cork
10.2.2 Commercial Cork-Based Filaments for AM
10.2.3 Experimental Cork Feedstocks for AM
10.3 Natural Fibers and Their Polymer Composites
10.4 Sisal
10.5 Flax
10.5.1 Overview of Flax
10.5.2 Commercial Flax-Based Feedstocks for AM
10.5.3 Experimental Flax-Based Feedstocks for AM
10.6 Hemp
10.6.1 Overview of Hemp
10.6.2 Commercial and Experimental Hemp/Polymer Composites
10.6.3 Commercial Hemp Filament for AM
10.6.4 Experimental Hemp-Based Filaments for AM
10.7 Harakeke
10.8 Nutshell and Nut Skin
10.8.1 Coconut Shell
10.8.2 Macadamia Nutshell
10.8.3 Almond Skin
10.9 Plant-Based Waste
10.10 Algae
10.10.1 Overview of Algae
10.10.2 Algae/Polymer Composites
10.10.3 Commercial Algae-Based AM Feedstocks
10.10.4 Experimental Algae-Based AM Feedstocks
10.10.5 Experimental Alginate-Based AM Feedstocks
10.10.6 Experimental Agarose-Based AM Feedstocks
10.11 Rice Straw
10.12 Beer, Coffee, and Wine Waste
10.13 Grains
10.14 Resins from Trees
Further Readings
References
11. Carbohydrates
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Starch
11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Commercial Starch Feedstocks for AM
11.2.3 Experimental Starch Feedstocks for AM
11.3 Sugar
11.3.1 Introduction
11.3.2 Experimental Sugar Feedstocks for AM
References
12. Hydrogels
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sustainable HGs FOR AM
12.2.1 Introduction
12.2.2 Agarose
12.2.3 Alginate
12.2.4 Carrageenan
12.2.5 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
12.2.6 Chitosan
12.2.7 Collagen
12.2.8 Fibrin
12.2.9 Gelatin
12.2.10 Hyaluronan
12.2.11 Peptides
Further Readings
References
13. Polybutylene Succinate
13.1 Overview of Polybutylene Succinate (PBS)
13.2 Commercial PBS Filament for AM
13.3 Experimental PBS for AM and other Processes
References
14. 3D Food Printing
14.1 Reasons for 3D Food Printing (3DFP)
14.2 Feedstock Screening
14.3 Food Viscosity
14.4 AM Processes for Food
14.4.1 Introduction
14.4.2 Binder Jetting (BJ)
14.4.3 Inkjet Printing (IP)
14.4.4 Material Extrusion (ME)
14.4.4.1 Introduction
14.4.4.2 Room-Temperature ME
14.4.4.3 Melting ME
14.4.4.4 Gel-Forming ME
14.4.5 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
14.5 Foods for 3DFP
14.6 Sustainability of 3DFP
14.7 Market of 3DFP
14.8 Near Future and Challenges of 3DFP
References
15. Acrylates
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Commercial Acrylates for AM
15.3 Experimental Acrylates in AM
15.3.1 Introduction
15.3.2 Non-Sustainable Acrylate-Based Feedstocks
15.3.3 Sustainable Acrylate-Based Feedstocks
References
Appendix A. List of Companies
Appendix B. Standard Test Methods for Plastics Issued by ASTM and ISO
Index