Handbook of Substance Misuse and Addictions: From Biology to Public Health

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction
1 Substance Misuse and Addictions in Context
Introduction
Prevalence of Substance Misuse
Mortality and Substance Misuse
Disability-Adjusted Life Years and Substance Misuse
Nonchemical Addictions
From Organ-Specific Effects to Public Health
Application to Other Areas
Summary Points
References
Part II: Foundations of Understanding and Setting the Scene
2 Linking Attitudes to Substance Misuse
Introduction
The Number of People Using Addictive Agent
Factors That Affect the Substance Use
Harms Caused by Substance Use in Young People
The Influence of Young Attitude on Substance Use
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Result
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Older Adults with Substance Use
Summary Points
References
3 The Gut-Brain Axis and Addictions
Introduction
Gut-Brain Axis and Alcohol Use Disorder
Ghrelin and Alcohol Use Disorder
GLP-1 and Alcohol Use Disorder
Amylin and Alcohol Use Disorder
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Ghrelin
GLP-1
Amylin
Final Conclusion
Main Dictionary Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
Acknowledgments
References
4 The Reward Deficiency Syndrome and Links with Addictive and Related Behaviors
Introduction: Integrative Approach
The Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) Model
Phenomenological Aspects of the RDS
The Neurogenetic Background of the RDS
Assessment of RDS: The Reward Deficiency Questionnaire (RDSQ-29)
Criticisms of the RDS
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Dopamine
Summary Points
Appendix 1
References
5 Linking Addictive and Obsessive-Compulsive Behaviors
Introduction
Learning-Based Accounts of Compulsive Behaviors
Compulsive Behavior in Addictions and OCRDs
Shared Cognitive Factors
Commonly Implicated Cognitive Factors
Novel Mechanisms and Perspectives
Multiple and Interactive Pathways to Addictive and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Summary and Future Directions
Summary Points
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary
Key Facts of Compulsive and Addictive Behaviors
References
6 Cognitive Assessment, Management, and Training in Addiction Treatment
Cognitive Impairment in Addiction
Definition of CI
Prevalence of CI
Nature of CI
Recovery of CI
Factors Contributing to Cognitive Impairment in Addiction
Impact of CI
Identification and Screening of Cognition in Addiction
History Taking
Nature of Cognitive Concerns
Onset and Course
Manner
Functional Impact
Corroborative History
Behavioral Observations
Self/Informant Questionnaires
Cognitive Screening Tools
Formal Neuropsychological Examination
Management and Treatment of Cognitive Deficits in AOD Settings
Cognitive Remediation and Training
Working Memory Training (WMT)
Inhibitory Control Training (ICT)
Goal Management Training (GMT)
Cognitive Bias Modification (CBM)
Pharmacological Enhancement
Cognitive and Lifestyle Compensatory Strategies
Cognitive Compensatory Strategies
Therapeutic Adaptations
Lifestyle Factors to Support Cognition and Brain Health
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
References
7 Attachment and Behavioral Addictions
Definition of Attachment
Neurobiology of Attachment
Attachment and Behavioral Addictions
Applications to Substance Addictions
Applications to Public Health
Final Conclusion
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Gambling Disorder
Summary Points
References
8 Disease and Addictions
Introduction
Discovery of Niacin Through the Eye of History
Search for the Cause
Epidemiology of Pellagra
Epidemiology of Pellagra and Alcohol
Pathogenesis of Pellagra in Patients with Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD)
Histopathologic Findings on Postmortem Studies
Clinical Features
Laboratory Investigation
Management
Supplement of All Micronutrients Not Only Niacin
Prevention
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Key Facts
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
9 Facts Versus Fiction in Adolescent Substance Use: Implications for Public Health
Facts Versus Fiction in Adolescent Substance Use: Implications for Public Health
Myth #1: ``All Adolescents Drink and Experiment with Substances.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Causes of Substance Use
Myth #2: ``Addiction Is a Disease - There Is Nothing You Can Do About It.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #3: ``Addiction Is a Choice - With Willpower, People Can Stop Using Drugs.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #4: ``Use of a Substance, a Substance Use Disorder Makes.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #5: ``Marijuana Is a Gateway Drug.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Role of Parents/Family
Myth #6: ``It Is Safer if Adolescents Start to Experiment with Alcohol at Home.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Effects of Substance Use
Myth #7: ``Marijuana Is Less Harmful than Other Drugs, So It Is Okay for Adolescents to Experiment.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #8: ``Prescription Drugs Are Not Addictive or Harmful Because They Come from a Doctor.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #9: ``Drinking Alcohol Underage Is Fine Because Alcohol Is Legal, and Adults Do It.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Substance Use in Marginalized Groups
Myth #10: ``Certain Types of People Are Predisposed to Use Drugs More Than Others.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #11: ``The Opioid Epidemic Does Not Discriminate and Affect All Groups Equally.´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Myth #12: ``Indigenous People Are Genetically More Susceptible to Alcohol´s Intoxicating Effects (i.e., The Firewater Myth).´´
Fact
Implications for Public Health
Summary
Key Facts of Adolescent Substance Use
Summary Points
References
10 Relapse Rates in Substance Misuse and the Role of Family
Definition and Rate of Relapse in Substance Use Disorder (SUD)
Triggers of Relapse
Relapse in Alcohol Use Disorder
Relapse Rates Among Users of Opioids
Users of Psychostimulants
Users of Hallucinogens
The Role of Family in Substance Use and Misuse
Children of Substance Abusers
Family Intervention for Substance Abuse
Integrated Care for Youths with Substance Abuse
Substance Abuse Treatment for Mothers to Improve Family Function
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Family Role in Substance Use
Summary Points
References
11 People with Intellectual Disabilities, Drug Misuse, and Addiction
Summary Points
Substance Use Is a Public Health Problem
Viewpoints of Substance Use
Substance Use Is a Disease
Social Factors of Substance Use
Substance Use Disorder in DSM-5
Substance Use Research in Intellectual Disabilities
Prevalence of Substance Use in Intellectual Disabilities
Public Health Interventions
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
References
12 Long-Term Drug Use
Introduction
Patterns of Consumption
Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics of Cannabis
Violence Proneness After Acute Intake of Cannabis
Violence Proneness After Chronic Cannabis Misuse
Cannabis and Homicide: Is There a Link?
Treatment for Chronic Cannabis Misuse
Conclusions and Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
References
13 Public Health Impacts of Drug Overdose and Mental Health
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorder
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Drug Overdose and Mental Health
Key Facts of Overdose
Key Facts of Substance Use Disorder
Key Facts of Depression
Summary Points
References
14 Linking Addictions and Health
Introduction
Introduction to Diabetes
Prediabetes: One Step Before Diabetes
Diabetes Risk Factors
Lifestyle Changes in Diabetes
Tobacco Use Worldwide
Smoking as an Independent Risk Factor for Diabetes
Smoking and Its Effects on Diabetes
Smoking and Its Effects on Complications of Diabetes
Smoking Cessation and Benefits on Diabetes
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
Mini-Dictionary of Term
Key Factors of Nicotine and Diabetes
References
15 Gender and Drug Policy
Introduction
Gender Differences in Drug Use and Harm
Substance Use During Pregnancy
Gendered Impacts of Drug Control
Gender-Responsive Drug Policy
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Pregnancy and Substance Use
Key Facts of Gender Differences in Drug-Related Harms
Summary Points
References
16 Substance Use Disorder Treatment in the Age of COVID-19: Challenges, Responses, and Lessons for the Future
Introduction
Collusion, Crash, Collision of Epidemics?
COVID-19 and Health-Related Vulnerabilities of People with Substance Use Disorder
Indicators of Serious Outcomes in People with SUD During the COVID-19 Pandemic
The Effects of COVID-19 on Substance Use Disorder Treatment Provision
Harm Reduction Services: SSP and Naloxone Distribution
Application of New Treatment Modalities to SUD Treatment
Telemedicine
E-prescribing and Take-Home MOUD
Reducing Risks to SUD Patients During the Pandemic
Lessons for the Future: Improving Services in the Age of COVID-19
New Technologies for Supporting Patients with SUD
Targeted Drug Tests
Further Liberalization of Buprenorphine Access
Prioritization of Access to COVID-19 Services for People with SUD and Interventions for Extremely Vulnerable PWUD
Enhancing Workforce Capacity and Economic Resilience of Treatment Centers
Conclusions: Back to Business as Usual?
Mini-dictionary
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
17 Socioeconomic Status and Drug Use Among Students
Introduction
Drug Use as a Subject of Social Pathology
Drug Use Among Students
Risk Factors for Drug Use Among Students
Development of Drug Use Among Students
Consequences of Drug Use Among Students
Drug Use and Student Socioeconomic Status
The Importance of Gender
The Importance of School
The Importance of the Family
Prevention Programs with a Focus on Students
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of the Prevalence of Drug Use in Adolescents
Summary Points
Reference
18 Revolving Door
Introduction
Hospital Admission for Substance Use
Psychiatric Diseases and the Revolving Door Phenomenon
Factors Associated to RD Phenomenon
Revolving Door and Demographic Factors
Revolving Door and Clinical Diagnosis
Revolving Door and Drug Misuse
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Final Conclusion
Dictionary
Summary Points
References
19 Substance Use in Older Adolescence: Overcoming the Prevention Paradox
Introduction
Trends in Adolescent and Young Adult Alcohol Use
Trends in Adolescent and Young Adult Illicit Substance Use
Harms of Adolescent and Young Adult Substance Use
The Developing Adolescent Brain
Alcohol and the Developing Brain
Alcohol and the Mental Health of Young People
Illicit Substance Use and the Developing Brain
Illicit Substance Use and the Mental Health of Young People
Preventing Substance Use and Related Harms
Public Health and the Upstream Approach
The Prevention Paradox
Overcoming the Prevention Paradox
When Should Prevention Occur?
Where Should Prevention Take Place?
School-Based Substance Use Prevention Programs
The Effectiveness of School-Based Prevention
Effective Preventive Principles for Young People
The Influence of Implementation Factors
The Landscape of Universal School-Based Programs
Opportunities in Late Adolescent Prevention
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts for Late Adolescent Substance Use Prevention
Summary Points
References
20 Medicinal Plants and Addiction Treatment
Introduction
Addiction and Principles of Treatment: An Overview
Currently Available Treatments for Addiction
Pharmacological Approaches
Non-pharmacological Approaches
Medicinal Plants: An overview
Medicinal Plants and Addiction Treatment
Panax (Ginseng)
Tabernanthe iboga
Hypericum perforatum
Withania somnifera
Rhodiola rosea
Corydalis yanhusuo
Lophophora williamsii
Salvia miltiorrhiza and Salvia przewalskii
Pueraria lobata or Radix puerariae lobata
Ayahuasca (Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi)
Opuntia ficus-indica
Cyanthillium cinereum (previously named Vernonia cinerea)
Passiflora incarnata
Valeriana officinalis
Other Plants
Studies on Herb Combination
Concluding Remarks
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Addiction and Principles of Treatment: An Overview
Key Facts of Pharmacological Approaches
Key Facts of Non-pharmacological Approaches
Key Facts of Medicinal Plants and Addiction Treatment
Summary Points
References
Part III: Brain, Neuroscience, and Neurobiology
21 Basic Structure of the Brain and Neurology
Introduction
Structure of the Brain
Medial Sagittal View of the Brain
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Cingulate Gyrus (CG)
Corpus Callosum (CC)
Thalamus
Hypothalamus (Hy)
Parietal Cortex (PC)
Cerebellum (CB)
Corticospinal Tract (CSP) and Medial Lemniscus (ML)
View of the Hippocampus (HC) and Associated Structures
Hippocampus (HC)
Dentate Gyrus (DG)
Septal Nuclei (SeN)
Entorhinal Cortex (EC) and Parahippocampal Gyrus (PHG)
Mammillary Bodies (MB)
View of the Basal Ganglia (BG) and Associated Structures
Neuropathology
Gross Changes
Changes in Specific Regions
Histological Changes
Neuroscience
The Extrapyramidal Motor System
Cerebellar Pathways
The Septo-hippocampal System
Neurology
Progressive Mental Deterioration and Dementia
Movement Problems
Altered Behavior
Hallucinations
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Brain Structure, Neuropathology, Neuroscience, and Neurology
Summary Points
References
22 The Hippocampus and Addiction: Focus on Plasticity and Circuitry in the Hippocampus
Introduction to Synaptic Plasticity
Hippocampal Formation
Hippocampal Circuitry and Plasticity
Hippocampal Circuitry - Within Region Focus
Hippocampal Circuitry - Between Region Focus
Synaptic Plasticity in CA1 Region of the Hippocampus
Synaptic Plasticity in the CA3 Region of the Hippocampus
Synaptic Plasticity in the Dentate Gyrus (DG) of the Hippocampus
Neurogenesis in the Adult DG - A Form of Plasticity
Adult Neurogenesis in the DG Influences Synaptic Plasticity in the DG
Regulation of Plasticity in the Hippocampus by Drugs of Abuse
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary
Key Facts
Abbreviations and Mini-dictionary
References
23 The Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC) and Addictions
Key Facts
Mini Dictionary
Cognitive Relevance of the PFC
Neuromodulation and Top-Down Control of the PFC
PFC Networks and Relation to Mental Disease
The Opportunity of the Critical Periods
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
References
24 Linking the Features of Food Addiction and Drug Addiction
Introduction
The Dopamine System: Drug and Food Addiction
Dopamine and Appetite-Regulating
Compulsion: Dysfunction of System
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Suggested Reference Material
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Addiction
Summary Points
Suggested Reference Material
Reference
25 The Left Frontoparietal Brain Network in Addictions
Introduction
Frontoparietal Network Definition
Left Frontoparietal Network in Psychostimulant Addiction
Left Frontoparietal Network in Alcohol Addiction
Left Frontoparietal Network in Nicotine Addiction
Left Frontoparietal Network in Behavioral Addiction
General Conclusions
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Neurotoxicity
Summary Points
References
26 Linking the Neural Correlates of Addiction and Negative Urgency
Introduction
What Is Negative Urgency?
Association with AUD
Role of NUR in Childhood and Adolescence
Role of NUR in College-Aged Students
Social Drinking
Binge Drinking
Role of NUR in Current AUD and Other Psychiatric Factors
Role of NUR in Relapse
Neural Correlates of NUR and AUD
Neurotransmitter Systems Associated with NUR and SUD
Serotonin (5HT) in NUR
Dopamine (DA)
γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
Neural Structures in AUD
Neural Correlates of NUR in Adolescence
Neural Correlates of NUR in Healthy Populations
Neural Correlates of NUR in Active AUD
Neural Correlates of NUR in Relapse
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction and Psychopathplogy
Eating and Gambling Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of ``Linking the Neural Correlates of Addiction and Negative Urgency´´
Summary Points
References
27 Impulsivity, Decision-Making, and Reward System as Key Factors in Addiction
Introduction
Impulsivity
Impulsivity: Constructs, Assessment Tools, and Neurobiology
Impulsivity in Substance Addictions: Evidence from Clinical Studies
Impulsivity and Addiction: Endophenotype, Consequence, or Both?
Decision-Making
Decision-Making: Constructs, Assessment Tools, and Neurobiology
Decision-Making in Substance Addictions: Evidence from Clinical Studies
Decision-Making and Addiction: Endophenotype, Consequence, or Both?
Reward System
Reward System: Constructs, Assessment Tools, and Neurobiology
Reward System in Substance Addictions: Evidence from Clinical Studies
Reward System Dysfunction and Addiction: Endophenotype, Consequence, or Both?
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
28 Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 and Its Links to Addictions
Introduction
TAAR1 Signaling and Its Distribution in the CNS
TAAR1 Modulates Dopamine Transmission In Vitro
TAAR1 Modulates Dopamine Transmission In Vivo
Genetical Modulation of TAAR1 on Drug Addiction-Related Behaviors
Taar1 Knockout
TAAR1 Overexpression
Pharmacological Modulation of TAAR1 on Rewarding and Reinforcing Effects of Drugs of Abuse
TAAR1 Full Agonists
RO5166017
RO5256390
TAAR1 Partial Agonists
RO5263397
RO5203648
TAAR1 Antagonist EPPTB
Pharmacological Modulation of TAAR1 on the Dark Side of Drug Addiction
Species-Dependent Effects of TAAR1 Agents
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Factors of Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 and Its Links to Addictions: A New Narrative
Summary Points
References
29 Linking fMRI, Pain, and Addictions
Introduction
Prevalence and Incidence of Chronic Pain
The Intersection of Pain and Substance Use Disorder (SUD)
Risk Factors and Correlates of Chronic Pain
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders and Public Health
Managing Pain at the Intersection of Pain and Substance Use Disorder (SUD)
Healthcare Provider Bias and Beliefs About Pain: Impact on Pain Management
Role of fMRI in Biopsychosocial and Socio-ecological Models of Pain
Linking fMRI to the Study of Pain and Substance Use Disorder: How Does Pain Change the Brain?
What Is fMRI?
Insights into Pain that fMRI Can Provide
Insights into Substance Use Disorder that fMRI Can Provide
Key Facts of fMRI Analysis Methods
Brain Activation and Connectivity Studies in Pain
Linking Pain and Opioid Use Disorder
Brain Activation and Connectivity Studies in Opioid Use Disorder
Pitfalls of fMRI in Clinical and Research Settings
Treatment and Management of Chronic Pain
Key Facts About the History of OUD and Pain Control
Treatment of Chronic Pain and Opioid Use Disorder: Challenges and Future Directions
Integrative and Complementary Treatment Approaches for Chronic Pain Management
Role of fMRI in Understanding Mechanisms of Action for Non-pharmacologic Pain Management Approaches
Implications for Policy and Practice
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
30 The Effects of Drugs of Abuse on ABC Transporters
Introduction
ABC Transporter Interactions with Drugs of Abuse
Opioids
Opioid Interactions with ABCB1 Transporters
Opioid Interactions with ABCG2 Transporters
Opioid Interactions with ABCC Transporters
Cannabinoids
Stimulant Drugs
Nicotine
Ethanol
Do Drugs of Abuse Affect the Expression of ABC Transporters?
Opioids
Cannabinoids
Stimulant Drugs
Nicotine
Ethanol
Conclusions
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts About Interactions of Drugs of Abuse with ABC Transporters
Summary Points
References
31 The Role of ABC Transporters in the Actions of Drugs of Abuse
Introduction
ABC Transporters Identified in Association Studies of Drug Dependence
Do Manipulations of ABC Transporters Affect Responses to Drugs of Abuse?
Clinical Evidence
Preclinical Evidence
Conclusions
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts about Interactions of Drugs of Abuse with ABC Transporters
Summary Points
References
Part IV: Tobacco
32 Smoking and Genetics
Introduction
Tobacco Consumption
Tobacco Smoking in Numbers
Nicotine
Smoking Behavior Phenotypes
Genetic Variants and Smoking Phenotypes
Genes Highlighted in Genome-Wide Associations Studies for Smoking
Evidence Gaps
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Smoking and Genetics
Summary Points
References
33 Cigarette Smoke and the NLRP3 Inflammasome
Introduction
Inflammasome
Types of Inflammasomes
NLRP3 Inflammasome
Proposed Mechanisms for the Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome
Ion Fluxes
ROS Production
Lysosomal Destabilization
Cigarette Smoke-Induced NLRP3 Inflammasome
Events Associated with NLRP3 Inflammasome and Cigarette Smoke
Transition of Monocytes into Macrophages
Oxidative Stress
Proinflammatory Cytokine Production
Pyroptosis
Lipid Profile Perturbation
Nuclear Factor-κB Signaling
Conclusion
Applications to Public Health
Key Facts
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
34 The Impact of Tobacco Smoke in the Home
Introduction
Epidemiology: A Global Overview
Impact of Age, Gender, and Sociodemographic Index
Quantitative and Qualitative Measures
Epidemiological Profile of ETS Exposure
Risk Factors of Tobacco Smoke Exposure at Home
Components of Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Impact of Tobacco Smoke in the Home
Impact on Children
Financial Burden of Tobacco Smoke in the Home
Intervention and Prevention: Solving the Problem by Different Means
Intervention and Prevention: Education and Smoking Cessation Support
Intervention and Prevention: Policies and Strategies
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of the Impact of Tobacco Smoke in the Home
Key Facts of Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Key Facts of Thirdhand Smoke
Summary Points
References
35 E-cigarette Polysubstance Vaping in Youth
Introduction
Overview of Electronic Cigarettes
Cannabis Overview
Reasons for Vaping Cannabis in Teens
Vaping Cannabis Trends and Polysubstance Use in Teenagers
Vaping as a Gateway to Smoking and Dual Use
Health Effects of Vaping Cannabis
Respiratory Health Effects
Mental Health Effects: Depression and Anxiety
Schizophrenia
Impact on Self Harm
Addiction
Crime: Drugged Driving
Health Effects of Dual Nicotine and Cannabis Vape Products
Mental Health, Cognition, and School Performance
Respiratory and Toxicity Exposure from Dual Nicotine and Cannabis Vaping
Provision of Healthcare and Current Strategies in Public Health
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Health Policies and Regulation
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary of Findings
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
36 Knowledge and Perceptions of Tobacco Harm Reduction: EU Aspects
Introduction
Tobacco Harm Reduction (THR)
Scientific Position and Approaches to THR
Knowledge and Perceptions About THR
Professionals
Population
THR in Europe
Regulating Electronic Cigarettes in Europe
United Kingdom
French
Sweden
Iceland
Greece
Conclusion
Applications in Public Health
Key and Summary Points
References
37 Smoking Cessation in Those with Mental Illness
Introduction
Prevalence of Smoking in Those with SMI
Impacts of Smoking on SMI
Impact on Health
Economic Burden
Social Consequences
Impact on Treatment Outcomes of SMI
Why Do They Smoke?
Neurobiological Factors
Genetic Factors
Psychological Factors
Social Factors
Other Patient-Related Factors
Application to Other Areas of Addiction (200-750 words)
Application to Other Areas of Public Health (200-750 words)
Mini-Dictionary of Terms (5-15 terms)
Key Facts of Smoking and Mental Illness: Why Do They Smoke?
Summary Points
References
38 Mental Illness and Tobacco Usage
Introduction
Lower Smoking Cessation Rates in SMI
Higher ND and Difficulty to Quit
Tobacco Culture in the Mental Health Setting: The Role of Care Providers
Lack of Awareness
Patient-Related Factors
Why Is Quitting Necessary?
Smoking and Psychiatric Medication
Smoking Cessation and Psychiatric Symptoms
Smoking Cessation and Health
Smoking and Associated Burdens
Treatment Guidelines and Strategies for Smoking Cessation in Those with SMI
Designing an Appropriate Smoking Cessation Program for Those with SMI
Implementation of the Smoking Cessation Program at an Organizational Level
Evidence-Based Therapies
Pharmacotherapies
NRT
Bupropion
Varenicline
Behavioral Therapies
Combination Therapy
Web-Based Interventions
Electronic Nicotine Delivery System (ENDS)
Challenges
How to Sustain the Change?
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Mental Illness and Tobacco Usage: Quitting and Beyond
Summary Points
References
39 Adolescents and Their Perception of Packaging on Tobacco Products
Introduction
Adolescents as a Vulnerable Group
The Pack as Advertisement
Perceptions and Behavior
Aspects of Tobacco Packaging Influencing Perceptions
Perceptions of Tobacco Products Among Adolescents
The Health Belief Model as a Theoretical Framework for Modifying Perceptions
Mechanisms for Tobacco Control Through Tobacco Packaging
Text Warnings on Cigarette Packaging
Graphic Health Warnings on Cigarette Packaging
Plain Packaging of Cigarettes
Text Warnings on Cigarette Sticks
Warnings and Elements of the HBM
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Tobacco Packaging
Key Facts of Health Warnings on Tobacco Packaging
Summary Points
References
40 A Critical Analysis of the Prohibition of Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems
Introduction
Overview of ENDS Regulation Worldwide
Regulation of ENDS as Consumer Products
Regulation of ENDS as Medicinal Products
Regulation of ENDS as Tobacco Products
Other Forms of Regulation
Prohibition of ENDS
Prohibition of Flavored ENDS
Justifications for ENDS Prohibitions
Potential Health Effects of ENDS
ENDS Uptake in Young People
The Role of the Tobacco Industry
ENDS and Their Efficacy for Smoking Cessation
Public Attitudes Toward ENDS Prohibition
Potential Public Health Impacts of ENDS Prohibition
Impacts of ENDS Prohibition on Vaping Prevalence
Impacts of ENDS Prohibition on Smoking Prevalence
Population Health Impacts of ENDS Prohibition
Product Safety and ENDS Prohibition
Ethical Considerations of ENDS Prohibition
ENDS Prohibition and Adult Smokers´ Autonomy
The Application of the Precautionary Principle to ENDS
Protecting Young People Versus Protecting Adult Smokers
Removal of ENDS Prohibitions: The Example of New Zealand
Conclusion
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Key Facts About ENDS
Key Facts About ENDS Regulation
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
41 Features of Ex-Smokers
Introduction
Definition of Ex-Smokers
Prevalence of Ex-Smoking Status in Europe
Factors Impacting Ex-Smoking Status
Sociodemographic Differences Among Ex-Smokers
Gender
Age
Education
Employment
Marital Status
Financial Situation
Social Class
Impact of Psychological and Behavioral Factors
Impact of Maintaining Long-Term Abstinence
Effects on Physical Health
Cancer
After Cancer Diagnosis
Cardiovascular Diseases
After CVD Diagnosis
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Reproductive Health
Effects on Body Mass
Effects on Mental Health
Description and Evaluation of Current Strategies and Policies Enhancing Smoking Cessation
Relapse Prevention
Treatment
Current Policies
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Features of Ex-Smokers
Summary Points
References
42 Combustible and Electronic Cigarette Usage, Puff Protocols, and Topography Standards
Introduction - A History of Inhaled Nicotine Products
Emissions Puff Topography Used in Standard Test Methods
History and Origin of the FTC/ISO Standard Cigarette Puffing Topography
Alternative Emissions Puff Topographies Used for Testing of Cigarettes and E-Cigs
What Emissions Puff Topographies Are Being Used Today?
Interaction Between Product Characteristics and Behavior
Machine Yields
Product Design Characteristics
User Behavior
Aerosol Deposition
Quantifying User Behavior
What Is User Puff Topography?
User Puff Topography Measurement and Instrumentation
Compare Natural Environment Measurements of User´s Puff Topography to Emissions Puff Topography Standards
Future of Topography Puffing Standards
Functional Operating Range
Topography Envelope and Emissions Topography Protocol
Standardizing the Reporting of Product Emissions Characteristics
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Key Facts of Emissions and User Puff Topography
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
43 Smoking and Lung Cancer: Public Health Perspectives
Introduction
Background
Epidemiology
Lifestyle, Smoking, and Lung Cancer
Dietary Intake, Smoking, and Lung Cancer
Alcohol Intake
Physical Activity, Smoking, and Lung Cancer
The Environment, Smoking, and Lung Cancer
Asbestos, Radon, Smoking, and Lung Cancer
Screening
Novel Biomarkers for Identifying Lung Cancer
Outlook
Management: Interventions for Smoking Cessation
Nicotine Replacement Therapy for Smokers
Psychological Counselling
Application to Other Areas
Conclusion
Mini-Dictionary of Terms (Meriam Webster Dictionary 2022; Cha et al. 2016; Nielsen et al. 2014; WHO 2021; Davis 2021; Wadgave ...
Key Facts on Smoking, Lung Cancer, and Risk Factor Modification (Middha et al. 2019; Husari et al. 2017; Fabricius and Lange 2...
Key Facts on Smoking, Lung Cancer, and Nutritional Epidemiology
Key Facts on Smoking, Lung Cancer, and Physical Activity Epidemiology
Summary Points (Tindle et al. 2018; Reitsma et al. 2021; Lugo et al. 2017; Law et al. 1997; Middha et al. 2019; Husari et al. ...
References
Part V: Alcohol
44 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Introduction
The Epidemiology of FASD
Economic Implications of FASD
FASD Diagnostic Criteria
FASD Diagnostic Systems
The Biological Underpinnings of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
General Neurological Differences Between Children with PAE and Healthy Control
Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Analyses of the Neurological Development of Children with PAE at Different Time/Age Intervals
The Teratogenic Vulnerability of a Fetus
Timing of Exposure
Social Determinants of Health and FASD
Genetic Predisposition
Treatments
Identifying and Measuring Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Biomarkers
Surveys, Interviews, and Clinical Observations
Stigma
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction and Mental Health
Maternal Alcohol Consumption
Comorbidity Between FASD and Other Psychiatric Disorders
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Summary Points
Bibliography
45 Chronic Alcohol and Skeletal Muscle
Introduction
Mechanisms of Alcohol-Mediated Skeletal Muscle Pathology
Stem Cells and Regeneration
Structure and Function
Protein Synthesis and Breakdown
Muscle Processes Affected by Alcohol
Mitochondria: Bioenergetics, Dynamics, and Oxidative Stress
Epigenetics
Alcohol-Mediated Muscle Changes in Exercise and Interorgan Communication
Exercise
Interorgan Cross Talk
Applications to Public Health: The Aging Population
Key Facts
Mini-dictionary
Summary Points
Future Issues
References
46 Neuroimaging and Alcohol-Use Disorder (AUD)
Introduction
Epidemiology
Mechanism of Action
Neuroimaging Techniques
Computed Tomography (CAT)
MRI
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Additional Functional Methods: PET, SPECT
Discussion
Applications to Other Areas of Substance-Use Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Neuroimaging and Alcohol-Use Disorder
Summary Points
References
47 Alcohol as Prodrug of Salsolinol
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Introduction
On the Relationship Between Alcohol and the Dopaminergic Mesolimbic System
Acetaldehyde, Alcohol´s First Metabolite, Comes into Scene
On the Role of Acetaldehyde in the Effects of Alcohol on the Dopaminergic Mesolimbic System
Salsolinol, Alcohol´s Secondary Metabolite, Comes into Scene
On the Demonstration that Alcohol Is the Prodrug of Salsolinol for its Actions on the Dopaminergic Mesolimbic System
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
References
48 Linking Stress, Depression, and Alcohol Use
Introduction
Knowledge About Alcohol Use
Alcohol Use and Its Effects on Health
Harmful Alcohol Use Leading to Mental Disorders
Alcohol Addiction as a Mental Disorder
Mental Disorders Associated with Alcohol Use
Schizophrenia
Anxiety
Bipolar Disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Other Mental Disorders
Alcohol and Depression
The Path Between Depression and Alcohol Abuse
The Role of Gender
The Role of Stress
Alcohol and Stress
The Path Between Stress and Alcohol Abuse
Comorbidity Between Alcohol Use Disorder, Stress, and Depression
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Comorbidity Between Substance Use Disorders and Mental Disorders
Summary Points
References
49 Alcohol and Disease
Introduction
Understanding Alcohol-related Terms
Understanding ``Standard´´ Alcohol Drinks and Low-Risk Drinking
Burden of Alcohol Consumption
Burden of Alcohol-Use Disorders
Alcohol and Disease: A Focus on Tuberculosis
Alcohol and Tuberculosis: Implications for Public Health and Policy
Tuberculosis and Alcohol Collaborative Framework
Purpose
Objectives
Implementation of Bidirectional Activities for TB-alcohol
Screening for Alcohol Abuse Under the National TB Program (NTP)
Screening and Brief Interventions (SBI) for Hazardous and Harmful Use of Alcohol
Alcohol Education for Risk Level I
Simple Advice for Risk Level II
Brief Counselling for Risk Level III
Referral for Risk Level IV
Alcohol de-Addiction Clinics/Centers and Screening for TB
Training
Demand Generation
Record Keeping and Reporting
Monitoring Indicators
Supervision
Private sector and Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) Involvement:
Implementation Plan
Applications to Other Areas of Substance-Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
50 Using New Technology and Concepts on the Oldest Addiction on Earth, Alcoholism
Introduction
The Cost of Alcohol-Related Harm
Identification and Interception of AUD
Barriers to Treatment of AUD
A Tale of Two Drinkers
The Economics of Alcohol Consumption Deterrence
The Harm Principle
A Model for Improvement: Australia´s Banned Drinkers Registrar
A Proposal for an Alcohol Purchase License
Application of an Alcohol Purchase License
Features of an Alcohol Purchase License
Duration and Adjudication
How to Implement
Potential Pitfalls of an Alcohol Purchase License
Additional Considerations
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts About Alcohol Use
Summary Points
References
51 Google, Public Health, and Alcohol and Drug Policy
Introduction
Introduction to Various Google Tools
Analysis of Google Trends (GT) Dataset
How Do These Google Trends-Based Data Differ from Traditional Methods of Data Collection?
Use of Google Data in Health Research
Google Trends in Substance Misuse Research
Alcohol
New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and Other Drugs
Tobacco and Other Nicotine Delivery Systems
Use of Google News in Substance Use Research
Substance Misuse Research Using Other Google Applications
Public Health Implications
Critique of Google Trends and Other Google Tool-Based Research
Conclusion
Key Facts
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
52 Alcohol Consumption in Low- and Middle-Income Settings
Introduction
Types of Alcohol Consumed
Urban and Rural Alcohol Consumption
Alcohol and Poverty
Alcohol as a Social Activity
Gender and Alcohol
Effects on Physical and Mental Health
Alcohols Harm to Others
The Alcohol Treatment Gap
The Alcohol Industrys Interest in LMICs
Current Alcohol Strategies and Policies
Alcohol Research in an LMIC Context
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction/Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health/Applications to Public Health/Applications to Areas of Public Health
Key Facts of Alcohol Consumption in Low- and Middle-Income Settings
Summary Points
References
53 Metals in Alcoholic Beverages and Public Health Implications
Introduction
Alcoholic Beverages in Human Health
High Blood Pressure
Breast Cancer
Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis
Neural and Cognitive Effects
Unrecorded Alcohol
Heavy Metals in Alcoholic Beverages
Arsenic (As)
Cadmium (Cd)
Lead
Copper
Other Metals
Application to Other Areas
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Key Facts of the World Health Organization on Unrecorded Alcohol (World Health Organization 2018a)
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
54 Alcohol Consumption and Suicidal Behavior: Current Research Evidence and Potential for Prevention
Introduction
Overview of Suicidal Behavior and Ideation
The Biopsychosocial Model of Suicide
Ecological Factors
Distal Factors
Proximal Factors
Alcohol Use and Suicide
Ecological-Level Links
The Distal Relationship Between Alcohol Use and Suicide
Quantifying the Distal Relationship
Potential Mechanisms
Depression and Depressive Disorders
Cognitive Dysfunction
Impulsivity and Aggression
Neurobiological Links Between Alcohol Use and Suicide
The Proximal Relationship Between Alcohol Use and Suicide
Quantifying the Proximal Relationship
Potential Mechanisms and Causality in the Proximal Relationship
Recent Life Events
Acute Effects of Alcohol Intoxication
Aggression
Feelings of Depression or Despair
Disinhibition, Impulsivity, and Impaired Problem-Solving
Association with Suicide Means and Lethality
Alcohol as a Means of Suicide
Alcohol Related to Other Means of Suicide
Impact of Alcohol-Focused Interventions
Impact of Alcohol Policies on Suicidal Behavior
Summary Points
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts About Suicide
References
55 Interventions for Children and Adolescents with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)
Introduction
Interventions for Cognitive, Neuropsychological, and Adaptive Challenges
Learning Disorders and Intervention
Neuropsychological Deficits and Intervention
ADHD Comorbidity and Treatment
Adaptive Behavior and Interventions
Social Deficits and Intervention
Regulatory Challenges in Children with FASD and Treatment Options
Sleep Disorders in Children with FASD and Intervention
Sleep Hygiene
Melatonin Supplement Therapy
Sensory Processing Deficits and Intervention
Eating Disorders and Intervention
Behavioral Challenges and Intervention
Pharmacological Treatment of Behavioral Disorders
Psychoeducative Interventions for Children and Adolescents with FASD and Behavioral Challenges
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorder
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of FASD
Summary Points
References
56 Mothers of Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Introduction
Exposure Assessment
Barriers to Prenatal Screening
Clinical Practice Implications
Prevalence of FASD
If FASD Is So Common Why Don´t We See IT?
Benefits of a Diagnosis of FASD
Additional Factors Impacting Diagnosis
FASD a Diagnosis of Exclusion?
The FASD Mortality Effect
Public Policy Implications of FASD
Parenting and FASD
FASD Becomes More Complex Across the Lifespan
Mothers with Current Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Mothers of Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Summary Points
References
57 Childhood Alcohol Use: Global Insights
Introduction
Childhood Alcohol Use: Variations Over Child Age, Place, and Time
Measuring the Age of Initiation and Current Use
Global Patterns and Trends of Childhood Alcohol Use
Genetic Factors of Early Alcohol Use
Family, Adoption and Twin Studies
Candidate Genes and Gene-Environment Interaction
Mental Health: Vulnerability and Resilience
Mental Health and Alcohol Use: Common Risk Factors
Symptom Interplay
Family and Friends
Parents and Early Alcohol Use
Family or Peers?
Culture and the Community
Policy for Protection Against Alcohol
Protecting Children From Access to Alcohol
Policy Synergy and Context
Summary
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms (5-15 Terms)
Key Facts of Childhood Alcohol Use
Summary Points
References
58 Alcohol Use Disorders and Neurological Illnesses
Introduction
Encephalopathies Associated with Alcohol Use
Acute Encephalopathies
Wernicke´s Encephalopathy
Epidemiology
Clinical Features
Laboratory Investigations
Thiamine Deficiency Markers
Neuroimaging
Pathophysiology
Thiamine Homeostasis
Biological Role of Thiamine
Neuropathology
Natural History and Course
Periods of High Risk of WE
Differences Between Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic WE
Prevention and Management of WE
Vitamin Supplementation
Adjunctive Treatments
Prevention of Further Episodes
Marchiafava-Bignami Disease
Epidemiology
Clinical Features
Laboratory Investigations
Pathophysiology
Natural History and Course
Types of MBD Based on Prognosis
Management of MBD
Osmotic Demyelination Syndromes
Epidemiology
Clinical Features
Laboratory Investigations
Pathophysiology
Natural History and Course
AUD: A Sufficient Cause of ODS
ODS and Therapeutic Nihilism
Treatment and Prevention
A Note on the Overlap Between Causes of Acute Encephalopathies in AUD
Neuropathies Associated with AUD
Alcohol-Related Peripheral Neuropathies
Epidemiology
Clinical Features
Laboratory Investigations
Nerve Conduction Studies and Electromyography
Nerve Biopsy
Other Investigations
Pathophysiology
Natural History and Course
Management of Alcohol-Related Peripheral Neuropathy
Toxic Nutritional Optic Neuropathy
Clinical Features
Tobacco: Ethanol Exposure Is Not ``Sufficient Cause´´ for Optic Neuropathy
Nutritional Aspects Must Be Addressed
Movement Disorders and AUD
Cerebellar Dysfunction in AUD
Epidemiology
Pathophysiology and Clinical Features
Natural Course and Outcome
Treatment
Tremors and AUD
Clinical Approach to an AUD Patient with Tremors
Alcohol Withdrawal Tremors
Alcohol Withdrawal Tremors: A Type of Exaggerated Physiological Tremors
Evolution and Course
Clinical Features Suggesting Other Etiologies
Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal Tremors
Other Alcohol-Related Etiologies Causing Tremors
Persistent Exaggerated Physiological Tremors in Detoxified AUD Patients
Essential Tremors and AUD
Application to Other Substance Use Disorders
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Key Facts of Encephalopathies Associated with Alcohol Use
Summary Points
References
59 Alcohol and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)
Introduction
The Molecule
BDNF Synthesis
BDNF Secretion
BDNF Interaction with Receptors and Downstream Effects
Pro-BDNF Binding
M-BDNF Binding
BDNF and Alcohol Addiction
Ethanol Consumption, BDNF, and the CREB Pathway
Epigenetic Changes of BDNF and Drug Addiction
BDNF in Excessive Drinkers
Metabolic Effects
Metabolic Effects of BDNF on Neurons
Systemic Metabolic Effects of BDNF
Effects on Muscle
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Inflammation and BDNF
Summary Points
References
60 Alcohol and Cirrhosis
Introduction
Liver Cirrhosis
Alcohol as a Risk Factor
Alcohol-Related Liver Cirrhosis
Diagnosis
Complications
Treatment
Abstinence as a Protective Factor
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Alcohol and Cirrhosis
Summary Points
References
Part VI: Cannabinoids
61 Synthetic Cannabinoids and Neurodevelopment
Introduction
Biological Effects of Synthetic Cannabinoids
Modulation of Neuronal Function by SCs
SC-mediated Dysregulation of Neurotransmission
The Endocannabinoid Signaling in the Regulation of Neurogenesis
The CB1R in SC-mediated Neurogenesis
Role of the CB2R in SC-mediated Neurogenesis
Neurogenesis Control Via SCs´ Actions on Glial Cells
Epigenetic Regulation of Neurogenesis by SCs
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Synthetic Cannabinoids
Summary Points
References
62 Cannabis and Organ Damage: A Focus on Pancreatitis (to Include Different Scenarios)
Introduction
Pancreas and Cannabinoids Receptors
Acute Pancreatitis and Cannabis
Chronic Pancreatitis and Cannabis
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
63 Cannabidiol (CBD) and Its Biological Toxicity
Introduction
Applicable Acts, Regulations, and Research Standards
Hemp Production Act
USFDA Botanical Drug Development Guidance for Industry
New Dietary Ingredient Notification (NDIN)
European Regulations
Toxicologic Evaluation
Research Standards
In Vitro Toxicology
Testing for Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity
In Vivo Toxicology
Testing in Animals
Acute Dose Range Finding Studies (DFRs)
Subchronic and Chronic Studies
Pharmacological and Pharmacokinetic Studies
Developmental Studies
Multigenerational Studies
Available Forms of CBD
Standards for Enabling Applications to Humans
Potential Future Direction with Preclinical Studies
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Key Points
Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
64 Cannabis Use and Sleep
Sleep and Health
Sleep Disorders
Existing Treatments for Sleep Disorders
Cannabis and Sleep
Effects of Cannabis on Sleep Disorders
Comorbid Sleep Disturbance with Other Diagnoses
Routes of Administration for Cannabinoids
Inhaled Versus Edible Cannabinoids
Synthetic Versus Plant-Derived Cannabinoids
Differential Effects of Cannabinoids and Other Compounds
Long-Term Use of Cannabis and Cannabis Use Disorder (CUD)
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Implications and Future Directions
Comparison of Plant-Based and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Relation to Sleep
The Effects of Mode of Administration, Dosages, and Potencies
Data Needed to Capture Pre-Onset of Use, Short-Term Use, and Long-Term Use
Comparison of Cannabis Use Exclusively as a Sleep Aid Versus the Effects of Cannabis Use for Comorbid Conditions on Sleep Outc...
Comparison of Sleep Outcomes Between Recreational and Medical Cannabis Users
Conclusion
Mini Dictionary
Summary Points
References
Sleep and Cannabis Online Resources
65 The Reward System: What It Is and How It Is Altered in Cannabis Users
Introduction
The Reward System
Acute Effects of Cannabis on the Reward System
Acute Effect of THC on Resting State Functional Connectivity in Occasional Users
Acute Effect of THC on Neurotransmission in Occasional Users
Acute Effect of THC on Task-Related Brain Activity in Occasional Users
Acute Effect of THC on Resting State Functional Connectivity and Neurotransmission in Chronic Users
Acute Effect of THC on Task-Related Brain Activity in Chronic Users
Persisting Effects of Cannabis on the Reward System
Chronic Cannabis Use and Resting State Functional Connectivity
Chronic Cannabis Use and Neurotransmission
Chronic Cannabis Use and Task-Related Brain Activity
Conclusion
Application to Addiction
Dorsal Striatal Dominance
Increased Incentive Salience
Decrease Response to Natural Reward
Application to Public Health
Summary Statements (5-15)
Key Facts (5 Single Sentences)
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
References
66 Attitudes and Cannabis Legalization
Introduction
Attitudes Towards Cannabis Use and Changes over Time in the United States
Attitudes Towards Cannabis Use and Changes over Time Outside of the United States
Reasons for Positive and Negative Attitudes Towards Cannabis Legalization
Correlates of Favoring and Opposing Legalization
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
67 Impact of Parental Cannabis
Introduction
State of Knowledge Regarding Cannabis Use by Parents
Portrait of Parents Using Cannabis
Impact of Cannabis Use on the Ability to Respond to Children´s Needs
Risk of Abuse or Neglect When Using Cannabis
Impact of Cannabis Use on Domains of Functioning Related to Parenting
Impact of Parental Cannabis Use on Offspring Development
What Is the Perception of Parents Regarding Their Use of Cannabis?
New Directions for Scientific Research on Parental Cannabis Use
Policies, Procedures, and Public Health Measures Regarding Parental Cannabis Use
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Key Facts on Parents Who Use Cannabis and on the Development of the Child
Summary Points
References
68 Public Health Issues of Legalizing Cannabis
Introduction
Biological Aspects
Public Health Aspects
Evaluating the Health Effects of Cannabis
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Cannabis and Public Health
Summary Points
References
69 Over-the-Counter Cannabidiol (CBD)
OTC Medications
Dietary Supplements
How Is CBD Regulated?
What Differences Exist Between Prescription CBD and ``OTC´´ CBD?
CBD Drug (And Supplement!) Interactions
CBD Pharmacogenomics
What Is Cannabidiol and How Does It Work?
Topical CBD
CBD Adverse Effects
Applications to Public Health
Key Facts
Mini Dictionary
Key Summary Points
References
70 Linking Cannabis and Homicide: Comparison with Alcohol
Introduction
Drugs and Violence
Cannabis and Homicide
Pharmacological Disinhibition
Economic Compulsiveness
Risky Situation
Homicide and Suicide Comparison
Alcohol and Homicide
Alcohol Consumption Pattern
Concurrent Use of Cannabis and Alcohol and Homicide
Interaction Between Cannabis and Alcohol
Summary and Suggestions
Applications to Other Substance Use Disorders
Other Drugs and Violence
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Implications Beyond Violence
Mini-Dictionary
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
Part VII: Caffeine
71 Caffeine Consumption over Time
Introduction
Patterns and Trends of Caffeine Consumption
Global and Regional Coffee Consumption Over Time
Continental Patterns of Coffee Consumption
Caffeine Consumption According to Age
Public Health Perspectives
Is Caffeine Addictive?
Effects on Mental and Physical Health
Current Strategies and Prevention
Environmental Issue: Another Point to Be Explored
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Caffeine Consumption Over Time
Summary Points
References
List of Useful Website
72 Caffeine and Alcohol
Introduction
Alcohol´s Pharmacological and Toxicological Profile
Caffeine´s Pharmacological and Toxicological Profile
Preclinical Studies
Energy Drinks
AMED and Its Consequences
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
73 Caffeine and Anxiety-Like Behavior
Introduction: Caffeine Exposure at Adulthood
Developmental Exposure to Caffeine
Mechanisms Related to Anxiety Induced by Caffeine
Susceptibility to Anxiety Effects of Caffeine
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts Regarding Susceptibility to Anxiety Effects of Caffeine
Summary Points
References
74 Caffeinated Beverages and Diabetes
Introduction
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Caffeinated Beverage Substances
Key Facts of the Relationship between Caffeinated Beverages and the Risk of Developing T2DM
Summary Points
References
75 Caffeine as an Active Adulterant: Implication for Drugs of Abuse Consumption
Introduction
Caffeine: Mechanism of Action on the Central Nervous System
Interaction Between Adenosinergic and Dopaminergic Receptors: Relevance for Psychostimulant Drugs of Abuse
Adulteration: A Common Phenomenon in the Illicit Drug Market
Caffeine as an Active Adulterant
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Key Facts
Mini-Dictionary
Summary Points
References
Part VIII: Areca and Khat
76 Areca Nut, Morbidity, and Cardiovascular Disease (Acute Coronary Syndrome): Implications for Policy and Prevention
Areca Nut
Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS)
Primary Features of ACS
Signs and Symptoms
Medical History
Clinical Assessment
Biochemical Test
Epidemiology of ACS
ACS and Areca Nut
Consumption of Areca Nut and Risk Factors for ACS
Public Health Programs for Prevention and Cessation of Areca Nut Consumption
Primary Prevention of ACS
Secondary Prevention of ACS
Research Implications
Research Activities in Asian Countries to Reduce Areca Nut Consumption in Asian Countries
Brief Explanation Is as Follows
Policies and Legislation
Education and Advocacy
Surveillance and Research
Types of Interventions
Product Bans
Media Campaign
Success Story
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
77 Carcinogenic Alkaloids Present in Areca Nut
Introduction
Prevalence of Areca Nut Addiction
Alkaloids of Areca Nut
Tobacco Alkaloids
Health Effects of Areca Nut Alkaloids on Experimental Animals
Carcinogenicity of Areca Nut Alkaloid (Arecoline) on Humans
Areca Nut Dependence
Areca Alkaloids Versus Tobacco Alkaloids
Impact of Age (Young Versus Old)
Impact of Occupation/Socioeconomic Background
Impact on the Societal Fabric
Impact on Divorce and the Family Unit
Impact of Educational Status and Age of Initiation on Addiction
Impact on Medical Care/Effects on Physical Health
Summary Points
Effects on Mental Health
Effects on the Immune System
Prevention: Solving the Problem by Different Means
Current Strategies and Policies
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
78 Naturally Occurring Cathinone from Khat, Synthetic Cathinones, and Cytochrome P450
Introduction
Overview of Khat and Cathinone
The Prevalence of Khat and Cathinone Use
Cathinone Derivatives and Synthetic Cathinone
Consumption and Pharmacokinetics of Khat and Cathinone
Effects of Khat and Cathinone on Mental and Physical Health
Cytochrome P450 (CYP)
Metabolism of Khat and Cathinone Involving CYPs
Inhibition of CYPs by Khat and Cathinones
Impact on Children
Impact on Self and Harm to Others
Anti-cathinone Vaccines
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
79 Cognitive Deficits and Synthetic Khat-Related Cathinones
Introduction
Neuropharmacological Actions of Synthetic Cathinones
Impact on Cognition in Animals
Impact on Cognition in Humans
Cellular Toxicity and Neuroinflammation as Possible Mechanisms of Cathinone-Induced Neurocognitive Dysfunction
Conclusions
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Synthetic Khat-Related Cathinones
Key Facts of Cognitive Deficits of Synthetic Khat-Related Cathinones
Summary Points
References
80 Khat Use in Defined Population
Introduction
Burden of Khat Use
Khat Use and Crime
Addressing Khat Use Inside Prison
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Conclusion on Current Situation and Future Prospects
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Khat Use Among Prisoners
Summary Points
References
81 Khat Consumption and Household Economies
Introduction
Studies on Khat
Perspective Matter: Producers (Rural) and Traders, Positive Impact Narratives
The Positive Impact: Studies at the National Level
Perspective Matter: Urban Consumers, Negative Impact Narratives
The Negative Impact: Studies at the National Level
Perspective Matters: Rural Producer plus Urban Consumers, a Balanced View
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Summary Points
Key Facts of Khat Consumption
Mini-Dictionary
References
82 Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Khat (Catha edulis Forsk)
Summary
Conclusion and Recommendations
References
83 Khat (Catha edulis) and Oral Health
Introduction
Khat and Epidemiology of Khat Use
Relationship Between Oral Diseases and Khat Use
Tooth Decay and Khat Use
Periodontal Diseases and Khat Use
Oral Cancer and Khat Use
Influence of Alcohol, Smoking, and Pesticides in Oral Cancers
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Conclusion
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
Part IX: Prescriptions, Over-the-Counter Medications, and Opioids
84 The Orexin System, Prescription Opioid Use Disorder, and Orexin Receptors Blockade
Introduction
The Orexin System and Its Involvement in Opioid Misuse and Abuse
Prescription Opioid Use Disorder and Orexin Receptor Blockade
Present Limitations and Future Directions
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Key Facts of ``Orexin Receptors as a Treatment Target for Prescription Opioid Use Disorder´´
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
85 Prescription Stimulants: Use for Weight Control and Associations with Disordered Eating
Introduction
Nonmedical Use of Prescription Stimulants
NMU for Weight and Appetite Control
Who Uses Prescription Simulants for Weight Control?
Body Image Concerns
Disordered Eating Behavior
Impact of Gender
Impact on Mental Health
Impact on Physical Health
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Disordered Eating and Prescription Stimulants
Key Facts of Weight-Related Nonmedical Use (NMU) of Prescription Stimulants
Summary Points
References
86 Heroin Use in China and the United States
Introduction
Impact of Age
Impact on Gender
Impact on Crime
Financial Cost of Addiction
Quality of Life
Impact on the Family Unit
Impact on Self and Harm to Others
Impact on Medical Care
Evaluation of Current Strategies and Policies
Slang Words for Heroin in English
Slang Words for Heroin in Chinese
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Abuse Research
Short Definitions of Terms
Key Facts of Heroin Use
Summary Points
References
87 Cognitive Enhancers: What They Are and How They Are Used in Heroin Addiction
Introduction
Opioid Use Causes Cognitive Impairment
General Neuropsychological Consequences
Compulsive and Impulsive Use
Potential Use of Cognitive Enhancers to Treat Heroin Use Disorders
Medicines Targeting the Noradrenergic System
Atomoxetine
Medicines Targeting the Cholinergic System
Galantamine
Donepezil and Rivastigmine
Physostigmine
Medicines Targeting the Glutamatergic System
Memantine
Other Chemicals that Act on the Glutamatergic System
Others
Rolipram
Sodium Butyrate
Potential Misuse of Cognitive Enhancers in Heroin Users
Nicotine
ATSs
Methylphenidate and Modafinil
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms (5-15 Terms)
Key Facts of Cognitive Enhancers
Summary Points
References
88 Fatalities in Patients with Opioid Use Disorders
Introduction
Illicit and Prescription Opioids
Poisoning and Overdose
Polysubstance Use
Tolerance, Withdrawal, and Abstinence
Opioid Type
Illicit Drug Purity and Contaminants
Suicide and Mental Health Disorders
HIV
Chronic Diseases
Accidents and External Causes of Death
Applications to Other Aspects of Addiction
Applications to Other Aspects of Public Health
Conclusions
Key Facts of Fatalities in Patients with an Opioid Use Disorders
Summary Points
References
89 Over-the-Counter Medications and Their Misuse
Introduction
The Number of People Using, Misusing, or Addicted to the Agent
Per Person Per Year
Per Country or Region Per Year
Impact of Age and Gender
Quantitative and Qualitative Measures
Years of Life Lost (YLL)
Impact on Medical Care
Effects on Mental Health
Effects on Physical Health
The Diagnosis or Assessment of Misuse
Prevention: Solving the Problem by Different Means
Alternative Prevention Options
Improved Treatment and Prescribing Practices
Identifying Risk Factors for Misuse
Psychosocial Responses to Prevention
Improved Research and Evaluation to Assess Prevention Efforts
Policies and Procedures
Provision of Healthcare
Current Strategies and Policies
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Pain Management
Mental Health
Telehealth
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Over-the-Counter Codeine Misuse
Summary Points
References
90 Opioid Reinforcement: What It Is and How It Can Be Modulated by Cannabinoids
Introduction
Epidemiological Notes on Cannabis and Opioid Use
Cannabinoid and Opioid Use in the General Population
Impact of Age and Gender
Global Burden of Disease
Reward and Reinforcement
Animal Models of Drug Reward/Reinforcement
Opioid Reinforcement
The Endogenous Opioid System
Mechanism of Opioid Reinforcement
Dopamine Role in Opioid Reinforcement
Cannabinoid Reinforcement
The Endogenous Cannabinoid System
Mechanism of Cannabinoid Reinforcement
Cannabinoid-Opioid Interaction
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Cannabinoid and Opioid Use
Key Facts of Opioid and Cannabinoid Reinforcement
References
91 Drug Misuse as an Epidemic: A Focus on the Synthetic Opioid Fentanyl
Introduction
Results
Fentanyl Epidemic in Estonia
Incubation and Expansion Phases of Fentanyl Era: Early 2000s
Plateau Phase: 2005-2015
Decline Phase: Late 2010s
Epidemics on Epidemic
Fentanyl Epidemic in the USA
Preincubation Stage: 1970s and 1980s
Incubation Stage: 1990s to Early 2010s
Expansion Stage: 2013 to Present
Discussion
Applications to Other Areas
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
92 Over-the-Counter Sinonasal Medicines and Potential for Misuse
Introduction
Common Over-the-Counter Medications
Expectorants
Antihistamines
Intranasal Corticosteroids
Decongestants
Combined Formulations
Regulation of OTC Medications
Regulation of Pseudoephedrine
Prevalence of OTC Medicine Use and Misuse
Marketing of OTC Sinonasal Medications
Financial Cost of OTC Sinonasal Medication Use
Effects of Misuse of Sinonasal Medications
Expectorants
Antihistamines
Intranasal Corticosteroids
Decongestants
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Conclusions
Summary Points
Key Facts of Over-the-Counter Sinonasal Medications and the Potential for Misuse
Mini-Dictionary
References
93 The Biology of Morphine and Oxidative Stress
Introduction
Applications of Morphine to Public Health
The Biological Roles of Morphine
The Analgesic Effect of Morphine
Mechanisms of Morphine Tolerance, Dependence, and Addiction
Oxidative Stress Contributes to Morphine Tolerance, Dependence, and Addiction
Chronic Morphine Exposure Led to Oxidative Stress
How the Oxidative Stress Produced After Morphine Administration
Mechanisms of Oxidative Stress Contributing to Morphine Tolerance, Dependence, and Addiction
Mitochondrial Dysfunction
Ferroptosis
Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress
Neuroinflammation
Conclusion and Expectation
Mini-dictionary
Key Facts
Symptoms After Morphine Addiction
Summary Point
References
94 Prescription Drug Misuse and Women
Introduction
PDM Prevalence
History of PDM
Prescriptions Drugs of Abuse
PDM Outcomes (Figs. 2 and 3)
PDM Differs from Other Abusable Drugs: Access, Low Stigma, and Motives
PDM in Women
Causes of Sex Differences in PDM
PDM and Pregnancy
Age, Economics, and Culture
Impact of PDM
Doctor Shopping
Crime
Relationships and Children
Achievement
Physical and Mental Health
Polysubstance Use
Course of SUD for Women
Overdose and Death
Prevention of PDM
Screening
Signs of PDM
Signs of Opioid Overdose
PDM Harm Reduction Strategies
Prescription Drug Monitoring
Preventative Health Education
PDM Interventions
Barriers to SUD Treatment
Evidence-Based Interventions (EBIs)
Gender-Based Treatment
Conclusion (Future Directions)
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Key Facts of PDM Among Women
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
Websites
Resources
Part X: Stimulants
95 Amphetamine in Biological Specimens: Impact and Implications for Public Health
Brief Introduction: The Problem of Consumption
Modes of Consumption and Toxicokinetics
Mechanism of Action, Toxic Effects, and Addiction
Detection of Amphetamine in Biological Fluids
Most Used Samples and the Advantages of Dosing in These Matrices
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health: The Importance of Monitoring
Blood
Plasma
Urine
Oral Fluid
Hair
Breast Milk
Meconium and Other Samples to Assess In Utero Drug Exposure
Public Health Impact and Consequences
Key Facts
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
96 Transcriptomics and Cocaine Addiction
Introduction
Transcriptomics
History
Bioinformatic Analyses
Convergent Functional Transcriptomics (CFT)
Newer Technologies: Single-Cell RNA-Seq
Cocaine Use Disorder
Transcriptomics of Cocaine in the Striatum
Synaptic Changes
Regulation of CREB: The Role of IEG Transcription Factors in the Cocaine Transcriptional Response
Regulation of Other IEG Transcription Factors in the Cocaine Transcriptional Response
Histone Regulation in Transcriptional Response to Cocaine
Homeostatic Changes
Cocaine-Induced Inflammatory Signals
Axonal Re-guidance: A Role for Neurotrophins and Proliferation Factors
Transcriptomics of Cocaine in Other Brain Regions
Conclusions
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Cocaine
Summary Points
References
97 Impact of Amphetamine Exposure During Adolescence on Neurobehavioral Endpoints
Introduction
Public Health Aspects
Clinical and Non-clinical Uses of Amphetamines
Prevalence of Amphetamine Use
Biological Aspects
Adolescent Neurobehavioral Development in Humans and Experimental Animals
Neurobehavioral Effects of Adolescent Amphetamine Exposure in Experimental Animals
Prefrontal Cortex Function and Cognitive Flexibility
Reversal Learning
Extradimensional Shifting
Monoamine Signaling
Knowledge Gaps and Considerations
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Adolescent Amphetamine Exposure
Summary Points
References
98 Sensitization to Amphetamine
Introduction
Development of Amphetamine-Sensitized Behavior
Amphetamine Sensitization in Earlier Stages of Evolution
Rodents
Primates
Humans
Ontogenesis
Maternal Separation
Context Dependency
Time Dependency
Role in Human Psychiatry
Schizophrenia
Addiction
Neurobiology
Dopamine
Glutamate
GABA
Serotonin
Noradrenaline
Monoamine Systems Uncoupling
Neuropeptides and Growth Factors
Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology
Ventral Tegmental Area
Dorsal and Ventral Striatum
Medial Prefrontal Cortex
Other Notable Brain Areas
Individual Differences
Cross-Sensitization
Drugs and Context
Stress
Effect of Sexual Behavior and Homeostatic Pressures
Intermittent Uncertainty and Amphetamine Sensitization
Epigenetic Mechanisms
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Key Facts of Cross-Sensitization
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
99 Methamphetamine Use Among Sexual Minority Men
Introduction
Epidemiology of Methamphetamine Use Among GBM in the United States and the Global Context
Prevalence of Methamphetamine Use
Prevalence and Epidemiology of Methamphetamine Use Among Gay and Bisexual Men
Prevalence of Methamphetamine Use Among Gay and Bisexual Men Living with HIV
Psychosocial and Contextual Factors That Potentiate Methamphetamine Use Among GBM
Individual Level
Interpersonal Level
Structural Level
Consequences of Use
Infectious Disease
Negative Physical Outcomes and Chronic Diseases
Incarceration
Treatment Approaches
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Methamphetamine Use Among Gay and Bisexual Men
Summary Points
References
100 Chronic Methamphetamine and Psychosis Pathways
Introduction
Methamphetamine
METH Abuse Prevalence
Economic Impact of METH Abuse and METH Psychosis
Psychosis
Network Dysfunction in Psychosis
Neural Substrates Governing Psychosis Development
METH-Induced Psychosis
METH Psychosis Pathophysiology
Acute METH Neurobiology and Neurotoxicity
Neurobiology and Neurotoxic Effects of Chronic METH
Factors Determining METH Psychosis Vulnerability
Methamphetamine Addiction
Adolescence
Sex
Genetic Susceptibility
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
METH and Schizophrenia
Treatment and Interventions
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Conclusion
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Methamphetamine Psychosis
Summary Points
References
101 Gene Variants and Cocaine Use Disorder
Introduction
Genetic Contribution to Cocaine Addiction
Strategies in the Research of Gene Variants in Cocaine Addiction
Hypothesis-Free Studies in Humans
GWAS
Gene Expression Studies
CGAS
Studies on Experimental Models In Vitro and In Vivo
Future Directions
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Gene Variants and Cocaine Use Disorder
Summary Points
Suggested Reference Material
References
102 Amphetamine and the Biology of Neuronal Morphology
Introduction
Brief History of Amphetamines
Types of Amphetamines
Legal Clinical Uses
Corticolimbic System
Mechanisms of Action of Amphetamines
Pharmacologic Effects of Amphetamines
Amphetamines in the Reward System
Dendrites and Dendritic Spines: Role and Functions
Dendrites
Dendritic Spines
Glutamatergic System
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)
Amphetamines and Neuronal Morphology
Chronic Exposure to Amphetamines
Neuronal Morphology and Amphetamines
Amphetamines on Memory and Learning Processes
Conclusions
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Amphetamines and Neuroplasticity
Key Facts of Amphetamines and Oxidative Stress
Summary Points
References
Part XI: Club Drugs
103 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and Synaptic Dopamine
Introduction
MDMA: General Considerations
Chemistry and Metabolism
MDMA Toxicity
Mechanism of Action
MDMA and Synaptic Dopamine
MDMA Enhances Synaptic Dopamine Through Nicotinic Receptors
Neuroadaptation
Impact on Gender and Age
Effects on Mental Health
Effects on Physical Health
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Conclusion
Key Facts of MDMA Synaptic Dopamine
Summary Points
References
104 Life-Threatening 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDMA) Usage
Introduction
Pharmacology
Life-Threatening Effects of MDMA
Autonomic Hyperactivity
Serotonin Syndrome
Clinical Evaluation
History
Physical Examination
Laboratory Tests
Differential Diagnosis
Management
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
105 GHB and Driving Performance
Introduction
Prevalence and Epidemiology
Psychomotor Effects on Experimental Studies
Psychomotor Effects on Epidemiological and Real-Case Scenarios
Concentrations, Doses, and Patterns of Use
Subjects´ Perception of Impairment
Policies
Research on the Topic
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Forensic Caseworks and Policies
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of GHB and Driving Performance
Key Facts of Driving Under the Influence of Drugs (DUID)
Key Facts of GHB and Performance Enhancer Drugs (PEDs)
Summary Points
References
106 Drug and MDMA Interactions Implications for Public Health
Introduction
Inter- and Intraindividual Variability and Modulating Factors on MDMA Pharmacokinetics/Pharmacodynamics
Influence of Genetics
Influences of Sex/Gender and Race/Ethnicity
MDMA Interactions: Medicines and Drugs of Abuse
Possible Future Therapeutic Use of MDMA
MDMA Acute Toxicity
Nondesired Effects and Intoxication Symptoms
Adverse Events
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Drug and MDMA Interaction Implications for Public Health
Summary Points
References
107 Effects of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants on the Metabolome
Introduction/Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
Metabolomics
Metabolomic Studies and Limitations
Metabolomic Investigations of Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Drugs
Metabolome Changes Related to Acute Toxicity
Methamphetamine
Amphetamine
MDMA
Mephedrone
Methylone and MDPV
Metabolome Changes Related to Addiction (Repeated Dosing) and Withdrawal
Methamphetamine
Amphetamine
Comparative Analysis of Effects on the Metabolome by Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
Comparison of Acute Effects on the Metabolome Between Different Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
Comparison of Metabolomic Changes Related to Stimulant Tolerance (Acute Toxicity, Addiction, Withdrawal)
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Comparability Between Amphetamine-Type Stimulants and Other Drugs
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Effects of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants on the Metabolome
Summary Points
References
108 The Biology of Nitric Oxide Signaling and MDMA
Introduction
MDMA: Epidemiology and Main Effects
Nitric Oxide Signaling in the Brain
Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Signaling Within the Brain
Role of NO in Dopaminergic Neurotransmission
Neurotoxicity of NO
Experimental Evidence of the Role of the Nitric Oxide Signaling Pathway in the Effects of MDMA
Role of NO in the Behavioral Actions of MDMA
Role of NO in the Psychomotor Effects of MDMA
Role of the NO Pathway in the Rewarding Effects of MDMA
Role of NO in the Neurotoxicity Induced by MDMA
Involvement of NO in MDMA-Induced Serotonergic Neurotoxicity
Involvement of NO in MDMA-Induced Dopaminergic Neurotoxicity
Role of NO in Other Physiological Effects of MDMA
Conclusions
Summary Points
Key Facts of MDMA
Key Facts of Nitric Oxide
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
References
109 Flunitrazepam as a Club Drug
Introduction
Club Drugs
Date-Rape and the Impact of Drugs
Recognizing Flunitrazepam
Rohypnol: Larger than Flunitrazepam
Prevalence of Flunitrazepam Use Based on Age and Gender
Detecting the Use of Flunitrazepam
Flunitrazepam Addiction, Dependence, and Withdrawal
Flunitrazepam Overdose
Key Facts of Flunitrazepam Overdose
Prevention Against Date-Rape Drug Exploitation
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
Part XII: Dissociative Drugs
110 Ketamine Misuse and Adverse Body Effects: A Focus on Uropathy
Introduction
Ketamine Pharmacology and Clinical Applications
Ketamine Misuse
Pathogenesis of Urinary Tract Injury
Inflammation and Fibrosis
Hypersensitivity
Microvascular Injury
Ketamine Direct Toxicity and Apoptosis
Urothelial Barrier Damage
Neurogenic Inflammation
Urothelial Atypia
Clinical Presentation
Epidemiology
LUTS and Laboratory Tests
Endoscopy
Urodynamics
Imaging Studies
Treatment
Clinical Assessment and Conservative Management
Medical Therapy
First-Line Treatment
Second-Line Treatment
Third-Line Treatment: Surgery
Future Perspectives
Intravesical Liposomal Onabotulinumtoxin-A Instillation
Stem Cell Therapy
Take-Home Messages
Summary Points
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
111 Addictions and Polymorphism
Introduction
Ketamine Abuse and Adverse Effects
Ketamine and GRIN2B Gene
GRIN2B Polymorphism in Schizophrenia and Drug Addiction
GRIN2B Polymorphism in Ketamine Users
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders (SUDs)
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Addictions and Polymorphism: A Focus on GRIN2B Gene and Ketamine Abuse
Summary Points
References
Part XIII: Hallucinogens
112 Psilocybin and Magic Mushrooms: Patterns of Abuse and Consequences of Recreational Misuse
Introduction
Patterns and Prevalence of Recreational Use
Reports on Polysubstance Use
Legal Status
Adverse Psychological Effects
Other Toxicity and Underlying Mechanisms
Implication of Drug-Drug Interactions for Toxicity
Overdose Treatment
Toxicological Analysis
Applications to Substance Abuse Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Psychedelics/Hallucinogens
Summary Points
References
113 Pharmacological Action of LSD
Introduction
Chemistry
Serotonin System
Glutamate System
Dopamine System
Noradrenaline System
Hallucinogenic Activity of LSD
LSD and Animal Behavior
Metabolism
Toxicity
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Conclusions
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Key Facts of Serotonin Receptors
Key Facts of Psychedelics
Summary Points
References
Part XIV: Steroids and Inhalants
114 Alkyl Nitrite Inhalants (Poppers)
Introduction
Historical Context
Prevalence
Biological Aspects
Mechanism of Action
Adverse Effects
Other Considerations
Potential for Abuse and Addiction
Interpersonal Aspects of Use
Policy and Structural Factors
Legal Status
Healthcare System, Screening, and Treatment for Popper Use
Conclusions
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use
Polysubstance Use
Co-Occurring Mental Health Disorders
Applications to Public Health
Key Facts of Alkyl Nitrite Inhalants
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
115 Toluene Abuse
Introduction
Toluene: Chemical Nature, Properties, Global Market, and Uses
Inhalants
Toluene as an Inhalant
Impact of Age and Gender on Toluene Abuse
Impact on Financial Cost of the Toluene Addiction
Toluene Absorption
Toluene Metabolization
Brain
Liver and Kidneys
Clinical Manifestation and Consequences of Toluene Abuse
Methods of Screening of Toluene Exposure
Applications to Other Areas of Addictions
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Toluene Abuse
Key Facts of Health Consequences of Chronic Exposure to Toluene
Summary Points
References
116 Unsafe Behaviors and Anabolic Steroid Use
Introduction
The Number of People Using AAS
Effects on Physical Health
AAS Use and Polypharmacy
Risky Injection Practices
Risky Sexual Behavior
Illicit Drug Use
Effects on Mental Health
Impact on Anger and Aggression
Impact on Crime
Prevention: Education of Individuals or Communities
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids (AAS)
Summary Points
References
117 High Testosterone Levels: Impact on the Heart
Stating the Problem
Misuses or Non-prescribed Uses of Testosterone and Androgens
Testosterone and the Cardiovascular System
Vascular Effects of Testosterone
Impact of Testosterone on Endothelial Cells
Impact of Testosterone on Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells
Impact of Testosterone on the Perivascular Adipose Tissue Other Mechanisms That Control Vascular Function
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Key Facts of Testosterone
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
118 Synaptic and Extrasynaptic Mitochondria
Introduction
Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Brief Epidemiological Tour D´horizon
Testosterone and Synthetic Derivatives
Side Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse
Impact of AAS on Anger and Aggression
Mitochondria: The ``Powerhouse of the Cell´´ and More
Effects of AAS on Synaptic and Extrasynaptic Mitochondria
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Key Facts of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids
Key Facts of Mitochondria
Key Facts of the Effects of AAS on Synaptic and Nonsynaptic Mitochondria
Summary Points
References
119 Toluene Abuse: A Medicolegal Perspective
Introduction
Toluene Absorption, Metabolism, and Toxicity
Forensic Aspects of Toluene Abuse and Toxicity
Sampling and Analysis
Pre-Analytical Phases
Analytic Methods
Forensic Laboratory Workflow
Postmortem Assessment
Acute Intoxication in the Living Subject
Blood Concentrations in Fatal and Nonfatal Exposures
Accidental Exposure and Voluntary Inhalation
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of ``Toluene Abuse: A Medicolegal Perspective´´
Summary Points
References
Part XV: International Aspects
120 Indian Aspects of Nondrug Addiction
Introduction
What Is Addiction
Internet Addiction: Definition and Terminology
Internet Addiction: Making Diagnosis
Internet Addiction: Symptoms
Indian Scenario of Internet Addiction
Internet Addiction in India: Prevalence
Application to Other Areas of Addiction
Application to Other Areas of Public Health
Health Risks
Societal Risk
Environmental Risk
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts
Summary
References
121 Drug Abuse in the Middle East
Introduction
Drug Abuse: An Overview
Types of Abused Drugs and Substances
Consequences of Drug Abuse
Drug Abuse in the Middle East
An Overview
Motivations and Factors Responsible for Substance Abuse in the Middle East
Researches about Substance Abuse in the Middle East
Stimulants
Captagon
Opioids
Alcohol
Cannabis (Marijuana)
Sedative Hypnotics
Tobacco
Miscellaneous Studies
Drug Abuse in Syria
Impact of the Syrian Civil War
Substance Abuse and Syrian War Militias
Substance Abuse and Civilians
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Drug Abuse in the Middle East: A Focus on Syria
Summary Points
References
122 Co-occurrence of (Online) Gaming and Substance Use
Introduction
Elements that Make Digital Games a Subject for Addiction Research
The Influence of Gaming on Substance Use
Conclusions Based on Preliminary Research
Recent Data on the Co-occurrence of Gaming and Substance Use in Austria
Availability of Data from Representative Samples Across European Countries
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of ``Prevalence of Problem Gaming´´
Key Facts of ``Concepts on Co-occurring Addictive Behaviors´´
Key Facts of ``Youth Drinking in Decline´´
Summary Points
References
123 Drug Abuse in Pakistan
Introduction
Drug Abuse
Drug Abuse Frequencies
Substance Use Disorder Status in Pakistan
Genomics of SUDs
Candidate Gene Studies and OUD
OPRM1
OPRK1
PDYN
Neurotrophic Factors
DAT
DRD2
DRD2 Intronic Variants in OUD Pakistani Cohort
DRD2 Enhancer Variant Risk Allele in OUD Pakistani Ethnic Groups
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Title
Summary Points
References
124 Methamphetamine Use and Chemsex: An Emerging Threat for Gender and Sexually Diverse People
Introduction
The Global Snapshot of Methamphetamine Use Patterns
Reasons for Methamphetamine Use and Chemsex
Effects of the Use of Meth on Sexual Risk Behaviors
Current Interventions and Best-Practice Examples for Tackling Chemsex
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of ``Methamphetamine Use and Chemsex: An Emerging Threat for Sexually and Gender Diverse People´´
Summary Points
References
125 The Opioid Substitution Therapy (OST) Program for the People Who Inject Drugs (PWID) in Bangladesh: Lessons Learned and Wa...
Drug Dependence and Global Situation of Drug Use
Harm Reduction and Opioid Substitution Therapy (OST): A Scientifically Proven Biomedical Intervention
History and Premise of the OST Program in Bangladesh
Successes and Limitations of the Program: Hopes for a More Promising Tomorrow
Challenges in the OST Program: Undermining the Program´s Ability to Eliminate Drug Use?
Implementation Barriers Within the OST Program
Concomitant Drug Use Among OST Clients: Defeating the Purpose of Obliterating Drug Use?
Methadone Diversion
Treatment Discontinuation
Methadone Procurement and Storage
Contextualization With the Regional and Global Scenarios
Best-Practice Examples of OST Interventions
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Conclusion
Key Facts
Summary Points
Mini-glossary of Terms
References
Part XVI: Dual and Polydrug Use and Addictions
126 Nandrolone Decanoate (Nan) Abusers and Concomitant Cannabis Use
Introduction
Prevalence of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids and Cannabis Abuse
Negative Consequences of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Misuse
Polydrug Abuse Among Nandrolone Decanoate and Cannabis Users
Risks of Concomitant Abuse of Nandrolone Decanoate and Cannabis
Impact of Concomitant Abuse on Crime, Legislation, and Economy
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Concomitant Abuse of Nandrolone and Cannabis
Summary Points
References
127 Concomitant Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Alcohol Use: Impact on Cognitive Function and Ingestive Behavior
Introduction
Does Co-use Alter Cannabis and Alcohol Consumption Patterns in People?
Does Co-use Worsen Cognitive Function in People?
Rodent Models of Alcohol and THC Co-administration
Future Direction
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Concomitant 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and Alcohol Use
Summary Points
References
128 Alcohol and Methamphetamine Interactions and Co-abuse
Introduction
Co-use of METH and Alcohol
Effect of COVID-19 on METH and Alcohol Use
Human Studies on Co-use of METH and Alcohol
Kinetics and the Pattern of Co-use of METH and Alcohol
Behavioral Effects of Co-use of METH and Alcohol
Effect of Co-use of METH and Alcohol During Pregnancy
Pharmacological Treatment of METH and Alcohol Co-abuse
Basic Investigations into Neural Mechanisms
Interactions with Dopaminergic Signalling
Links to Striatal Glutamate
Non-dopaminergic Mechanisms
Behavioral Interactions in Rodents
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
References
129 Alcohol and Cocaine Co-usage
Introduction: The Clinical Problem of Cocaine and Ethanol Co-abuse
Epidemiology
Clinical Manifestations of Cocaine and Ethanol Co-abuse
Cocaine and Ethanol Co-use and Overdose
Mechanisms Underlying the Effects of Cocaine
Glutamate Homeostasis
Neuroplasticity and Neuroadaptations Associated with Acute and Chronic Cocaine Use
Mechanisms Underlying the Effects of Ethanol
Studies of Combined Ethanol and Cocaine Exposure
Combined Mechanisms That May Contribute to Enhanced Acute Effects
Combined Mechanisms That May Enhance Neuroadaptations and Drug Dependence
Conclusions: Implications for Treatment of Drug Dependence and the Development of Therapeutics to Treat Cocaine/Ethanol Co-dep...
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts About Alcohol and Cocaine Co-abuse
References
130 Linking Polysubstance Use, Glutamate, and the Nucleus Accumbens
Introduction
Nucleus Accumbens Core Glutamate and Cocaine Seeking
Nucleus Accumbens Core Glutamate and Alcohol Seeking
Animal Models of Combined Cocaine and Alcohol Use
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Key Facts of Polysubstance Use Disorder
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
131 Prenatal Illicit Drug and Polysubstance Exposure and Impact on Developmental Outcome
Introduction
Impact on Early Brain Development
Clinical Impact of Prenatal Drug Exposure
Preterm Birth
Low Birth Weight Due to Intrauterine/Fetal Growth Restriction
Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS)/Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome (NAWS)
Neurobehavioral Disturbances in Infancy: Dysregulation and Hypersensitivity
Higher-Order Brain Dysfunctions and Behavioral Problems in Childhood and Adolescence
Outcome Studies of Specific Illicit Drug Exposure
Cocaine
Methamphetamine
Ecstasy
Opioids
Cannabis (Marijuana, Hashish)
Neuroimaging Findings After Prenatal Illicit Drug Exposure
Limitations and Confounders
Low Validity of Self-Report of Drug Use by Pregnant Women
Polysubstance Use
Coexisting Risk Factors with Influence on Early Brain Development and Outcome
Conclusion
Applications to Other Areas of Prenatal Substance Use
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts: Prenatal Illicit Drug and Polysubstance Exposure and Impact on Developmental Outcome
Key Facts of Prenatal Illicit Drug Exposure
Key Facts of Structural Brain Findings After Prenatal Illicit Drug Exposure
Key Facts of Clinical Outcomes After Prenatal Illicit Drug Exposure
Summary Points
References
132 Buprenorphine, Polydrug Use, and Deaths
Introduction
Pharmacology
Pharmacokinetics
Formulations and Dosing
Buprenorphine Toxicity
Buprenorphine Diversion and Misuse
Risk Factors for Fatal Outcome
Polydrug Use
Prevention of Buprenorphine Deaths
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Polydrug Use
Summary Points
References
Part XVII: Non-drug Addictions
133 Gambling Disorder as an Addiction
Introduction
Prevalence of Gambling and Gambling Disorder
Forms of Gambling
Gender
GD and Co-occurring Disorders
The Diagnosis of Gambling Disorder: The DSM and ICD
Screening Tools for GD
Impulsivity and Decision-Making
Gambling Disorder and the Brain
Functional Neuroimaging
Structural Neuroimaging
Financial Impacts of GD
Treatment
Prevention
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Applications to Other Areas of Addictions
Applications to Areas of Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Gambling Disorder
Summary Points of Gambling Disorder as an Addiction
References
134 Food Addiction and Policy
Introduction
What Is FA?
Prevalence of FA
Alternative Perspectives
Why Are Policies Needed to Regulate Food Consumption?
Public Health Policies to Reduce Weight and Overconsumption
Support for Food Policies Among Stakeholders
Case Studies of Food Policies
Broad Evidence of Impact
Price Changes for Healthy and Unhealthy Foods
Taxation on Non-SSB Foods
Environmental Interventions to Reduce SSB Consumption
Future Directions
More Food Policy Research
Individual Treatments of a FA
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of FA
Summary Points
References
135 Food Addiction
Introduction
History of Food Addiction
Potential Causes of Food Addiction
Long-Term Effects of Food Addiction
Potential Treatments for Food Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Key Facts About Food Addiction
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Summary Points
References
136 Behavioral Addictions in Children: A Focus on Gambling, Gaming, Internet Addiction, and Excessive Smartphone Use
Introduction to Behavioral Addictions
Child and Adolescent Risky Behaviors
Gambling Disorders
Prevalence of Gambling-Related Problems Among Children and Adolescents
Risk Factors Associated with Youth Gambling Disorders
Assessing Youth Gambling Disorders
Prevention and Treatment of Youth Gambling Disorders
Gaming Disorders Among Children and Adolescents
Prevalence and Consequences of Gaming Disorder
Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Youth Gaming Disorders
Assessment and Diagnosis of Gaming Disorder
Prevention and Intervention
Internet Addiction Among Children and Adolescents
Risk and Protective Factors
Assessment of Internet Addiction
Prevention and Intervention
The Excessive Use of Smartphones
Prevalence of Smartphone Use Among Youth
Smartphone Addiction
Risk Factors Associated with Excessive Smartphone Use
Assessing Smartphone Addiction
Preventing and Treating Excessive Smartphone Use
Youth Behavioral Addictions: A Public Health Concern
Key Facts
Summary Points
References
137 Nondrug Addictions
Introduction
Theoretical Framework
Etiology
Assessment of Exercise Addiction Risk
Prevalence of High Risk of Exercise Addiction: Sports Disciplines
Prevalence of High Risk of Exercise Addiction: Exercise Volume
Exercise Addiction and Health: Global Vision
Exercise Addiction and Health: Concrete Examples
Exercise Addiction and Mental Disorders
Application to Other Addictions
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts on Nondrug Addictions: Exercise Addiction and Health
Summary Points
References
138 Non-drug Addiction: Addiction to Work
Introduction
Prevalence Rates
Impact of Gender
Impact of Age
Impact on Self and Harm to Others
Impact on Anger and Aggression, Crime, and Societal Fabrics
Impact on the Family Unit and Children
Impact on Educational Attainment
Effects on Mental Health
Effects on Physical Health
Impact on Financial Cost of the Addiction and Medical Care
The Diagnosis or Assessment of Addiction
Treatment
Prevention: An Urgent Need for Universal Prevention
Evaluation of Current Strategies and Policies
Applications To Other Areas of Addiction
Applications To Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Work Addiction
Key Facts of Study Addiction
Key Facts of Anankastia/OCPD
Summary Points
References
Part XVIII: Emerging Addictions and Agents of Misuse
139 Pathological Effects and Adverse Events Associated with the Phenylethylamine Derivative NBOMe
Introduction
Vascular Complications/Vasospasm
Platelet Aggregation/ Ischemia
Rhabdomyolysis
Ventricular Arrhythmia
Hyperthermia
Examples of Cases with Severe Ischemia with Other NPS
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Social Implications
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction and Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Side Effects in Relation to NBOMe Ingestion
Summary Points
References
140 Piperazine Designer Drugs of Abuse
Introduction
Pattern of Use
Toxicokinetics
Toxicodynamics
Pharmacological and Toxicological Effects
Intoxication and Treatment
Applications to Other Areas of Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Summary Points
Neuroscientific Aspects
Nutritional Aspects
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of NPS
Key Facts of Piperazine Designer Drugs
Summary Points
References
141 The Use and Abuse of Synthetic Cathinones (aka ``Bath Salts´´)
Background
History
Expansion and Legal Classification
Motivations for Use
Doses and Patterns of Use
User Demographics
Polydrug Use
From Humans to Animals: Justification for Preclinical Models
Cathinone/Synthetic Cathinone IVSA
Chemical Characterization
IVSA (First-Generation Synthetic Cathinones)
IVSA (Second-Generation Synthetic Cathinones)
Structure-Activity Relationships
Summary
Contribution of Reward and Aversion to Abuse Vulnerability
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Addiction and the Utility of Self-Administration Models
Summary Points
References
142 The Toll of Benzofurans in the Context of Drug Abuse
Introduction
Chemical and Analytical Properties of Benzofurans
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacokinetics
Biological Effects and Toxicity of Psychoactive Benzofurans
Applications to Addiction
Applications to Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Benzofurans in the Context of Drug Abuse
Summary Points
References
Part XIX: Selective Screening Tools, Analytical Methods, and Resources
143 The Indonesian Internet Addiction Questionnaires
Introduction
History of Internet Addiction Research and Practice in Indonesia
Key Facts
Sociocultural Aspects of Internet Usage in Adolescents and Adults
Key Facts
Validation, Domains, Features, and Use of KDAI
Key Facts
Case Illustration
Key Facts
KDAI Application in Public Health and Policy Reforms
Key Facts
Applications to Other Areas of Behavioral Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Disorders Due to Addictive Behavior
Key Facts of Internet Addiction
Key Facts of Internet Addiction Screening Tools
Summary Points
References
144 The Addiction-Like Eating Behavior Scale: Features and Applications
Introduction
What Is the Addiction-Like Eating Behavior?
Is It Necessary to Assess the Eating Addiction in Clinical Practice?
Why Should We Use the AEBS?
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of the AEBS: Features and Applications
Summary Points
References
145 The Karolinska Psychodynamic Profile
Introduction
KAPP: Overview
Personality Organization (PO)
The KAPP Interview
Psychodynamic Perspectives on Misuse and Addiction
The KAPP, Emotions, Relationships, and Defenses
Substances and Behavioral Addictions
KAPP, Substance Misuse, and Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of the KAPP
Summary Points: KAPP, Research, and Clinical Practice
References
146 Recommended Resources and Online Material for Investigating Substance Misuse and Addictions
Introduction
Resources
Other Resources
Summary Points
Mini-dictionary of Terms
References
147 Inventory for Early Screening of Work Addiction-Related Behaviors in High School and Undergraduate Students
The Multidimensional Inventory: Learning Profile of a Student (MILPoS) Subscales/Components
Introduction
Overview of Development of the MILPoS
Pilot Study
Second Study: A Shortened Version of the Inventory
Third Study: Final Version of the Inventory
Fourth Study: Cross-validation and Cross-cultural Validation
MILPoS and Bergen Study Addiction Scale: High Convergence
Study Addiction Versus Study Engagement
Study Addiction Components: An Overview of Results
Study Addiction Risk Factors: An Overview of Results
Burnout Indicators: Theoretical Considerations and Overview of Results
Learning Competencies: Theoretical Considerations and Overview of Results
Student Profiles Identified with the MILPoS: Study Addiction Risk and Stages
Normalized Scores: Interpretation
Conclusions and Recommendations
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction and Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of the MILPoS
Summary Points
References
148 The Abbreviated Self Completion Teen-Addiction Severity Index (ASC T-ASI)
Introduction
Economic Evaluations of New Treatments
Specification and Estimation of Treatment-Related Benefits
Generic Health-Related Quality-of-Life Instruments
Abbreviated Self Completion Teen-Addition Severity Index
Descriptive System and Validity of the ASC T-ASI
Preference Scores for the ASC T-ASI
ASC T-ASI in Combination with Other Instruments in Economic Evaluations
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Economic Evaluations
Key Facts of Treatments for Substance Use in Adolescents
Key Facts of the ASC T-ASI
Summary Points
References
149 Stigma and Quality of Life in Substance Users: Methods and Applications
Introduction
Stigma and Types of Stigma
Development of Self-Stigma
Types of Quality of Life (QoL)
Stigma, Mental Health, and QoL of Individuals with Substance Use Disorders
Instruments Assessing Stigma in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders
Instruments Used to Assess QoL in Individuals with Substance Use Disorders
Applications to Other Areas of Addiction
Applications to Other Areas of Public Health
Mini-Dictionary of Terms
Key Facts of Stigma and Quality of Life in People with Substance Use Disorders
Summary Points
References
Index