Handbook Of Security Science

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Section Editors
Contributors
Part I: Concepts in Security Studies
1 Critical Infrastructure Risk Analysis and Management
Foundations of Risk
The Importance/Value of Risk Assessment
Key Tenets of Risk Management
The Foundational Risk Formula for Infrastructure Protection
Variance of Risk Models
Asset Identification, Categorization, and Criticality Analysis
Team-Based Approach
Asset Identification and Core Functions
Asset Categorization
Asset Criticality Analysis
Threat and Hazard Assessment
Vulnerability Assessment
Vulnerabilities
Assessing Vulnerabilities
US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Vulnerability Assessment Application Examples
Infrastructure Survey Tool (IST)
Chemical Security Assessment Tool (CSAT)
Computer Emergency Readiness Teams (CERT) Cyber Resilience Review (CRR)
Computer Emergency Readiness Teams (CERT) Cyber Security Evaluation Tool (CSET)
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Vulnerability Remediation or Mitigation
Consequence and Impact Assessment
Risk Management Decisions and Countermeasures
Risk Communication
Sample Risk Assessment Frameworks and Methodologies
National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP)
Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (THIRA)
CARVER + Shock
Conclusion
References
2 Critical Thinking and Effective Communication in Security Domains
Introduction
Definition and Significance of CTEC Components
Barriers to CTEC in Security Domains
How to Develop CTEC in Security Domains
Higher Educational Settings
Strategies to Develop CTEC in Security Domains
Examples for CTEC Development in Security Domains
Asking Critical Thinking Questions
Red Teaming
Applying Effective Communication Skills in Security Domains
Conclusion
References
3 Disinformation and Fake News
Introduction
Characterization and Dangers of the Phenomenon Fake News
Legitimacy Through Quantity
Dangers and Tendencies
Technological Possibilities and Artificial Intelligence
Technical Means to Fight Fake News
Open Issues and Challenges
Legal aspects
Fake News and Freedom of Expression
Duties to Combat or to Uncover Fake News
Regulation of Fake News in Current Legislation
Fake News Detection Through AI
AI Regulation
Conclusions and Outlook
References
Jurisprudence
4 US Homeland Security
The Impetus
Pre-9/11 Thinking
Post-9/11 Government Reform
Linear Versus Nonlinear Thinking in Homeland Security
The Role of Leadership in the Complex Domain of Homeland Security
The Five Core Mission Areas as Defined by the 2010 and 2014 Quadrennial Homeland Security Reviews
All Hazards Approach
Whole Community
The Evolution of Information Sharing in US Homeland Security
Conclusion
References
5 Domestic Terrorism
Domestic Terrorism
Conceptual Challenges
Describing Domestic Terrorism Incidents
Plausible Causes of Domestic Terrorism
Individual-Level Explanations
Group-Level Explanations
Societal-Level Explanations
Summary
Responses to Domestic Terrorism
Conclusion
References
6 Insider Threat: Applying No Dark Corners Defenses
Introduction
Scope
Status Quo
Unifying Thread of Conventional Defenses
Limitations of Conventional Wisdom
Type of Insider: Disgruntled Employee vs. Infiltrator
Achilles´ Heels in Countering Insider Threats
Self-Defeating Aspects of Default Responses
No Dark Corners as Insider Threat Defense
The Dilemma: A Problem with the ``Problem´´
Toward a Solution
Enter the No Dark Corners Approach
Differences in Context
Point by Point
Random Audits
Background Investigations
Invasive Monitoring
Background Updates
Only Sentinels Watch
Identity and Work Verification
Close Probation
Transparency on the Job
Self-Monitoring at the Team Level
Prominent Aspects of Insider Threats and Promising Defenses
Deception
Knowledgeable Escort
Curse of the Indelicate Obvious
Lawful Disruption
Copilot Engagement vs. Draconian Alienation
Defensive Strategies at the Societal Level
Significance of Divided Loyalties
Defensive Options
Early Warning and Preemption
Other Options
Concluding Observations
Epiphanies
References
7 Post-9/11 Radicalization Theory and Its Impact on Violent Extremism
Introduction
Part 1: Theories of Radicalization
Two Centuries of Radicalization
From Individual to Social Forces: Radicalization Theories Before 9/11
From Political to Religious Motives: Radicalization Theories Post-9/11
Part 2: How Theory Shapes Reality
Profiling, Targeting, and Discrimination Against Muslims
Cycle of Radicalization
Radicalization in the War on Terror
Conclusion
References
8 Counterterrorism Policy
Introduction
Counterterrorism Policy as a Concept
Counterterrorism Cooperation at the International Level
The UN Counterterrorism Policy
Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF)
Counterterrorism Policy at the Regional Level
EU Counterterrorism Policy
NATO Involvement in International Counterterrorism Policy
Counterterrorism at the National Level
UK Counterterrorism Policy
Consensus on Components of Counterterrorism Policy
Conclusion
References
9 Emergency Management System Application in Management of Terrorist Incidents
Introduction
Emergency Management Principles, Practices, and Stakeholders
The Evolution of the Definition of Emergency Management in the USA
Principles of Emergency Management
Stakeholders, Community Needs, and the ``Whole Community Approach´´
The Beginnings of the Present Emergency Management System
Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Paradigm 1978-2002
Concept of ``All Risk´´/``All Hazard´´
Disaster Life Cycle
FEMA Leadership to State, Local, Tribes, and Territories (SLTTT)
FEMA/Emergency Management Assigned as Lead for Terrorism Consequence Management
High-Impact/Catastrophic Terrorist Attacks Drive Future Actions
Introduction to the Principle of Crisis and Consequence Management into the Lexicon
Support to States, Local, Tribes, and Territories (SLTT) for Terrorism Preparedness
Training
Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996
Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996
National Domestic Preparedness Consortium
Equipment
Ongoing Terrorism Grants to SLTTs, NonProfits, Faith-Based, and Private Organizations
Federally Sponsored Resources to Support SLTTs
Select Federal Foundation Plans and Planning Guidance with SLTT Applications
Terrorism Incident Annex to the Federal Response Plan (February 7, 1997)
National Plan for Information Systems Protection (April 2000)
FEMA Guide for All-Hazard Emergency Operations Planning Attachment G: Terrorism (April 2001)
CONPLAN: United States Government Interagency Domestic Terrorism Concept of Operations Plan (January 2001)
Managing the Emergency Consequences of Terrorist Incidents Interim Planning Guide for State and Local Governments (July 2002)
National Incident Management System (March 1, 2004, to Present)
DHS Interim National Preparedness Goal and Associated Planning Guidance (2005)
National Preparedness System (November 2011 to Present)
Comprehensive Preparedness Guide (CPG) 201: Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (THIRA and Stakeholder Prepar...
Guide to Continuity of Government for State, Local, Tribal, and Territorial Governments (July 2021)
Comprehensive Preparedness Guide (CPG) 101 Developing and Maintaining Emergency Operations Plans (Version 3.0, September 2021)
Select Terrorism-Related National Policy and SLTT Applications
Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) (November 1996)
Presidential Decision Directive 63: Critical Infrastructure (May 22, 1998)
Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296)
Homeland Security Presidential Directive 5: Management of Domestic Incidents (February 28, 2003)
Homeland Security Presidential Directive 8: National Preparedness (December 17, 2003)
Interim National Preparedness Goal (March 2005)
Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2007 (October 4, 2006)
Homeland Security Presidential Directive 20: National Continuity Policy (May 9, 2007)
National Preparedness Guidelines (September 2007)
Presidential Policy Directive (PPD) 8: National Preparedness (March 30, 2011)
National Preparedness Goal (Version 1 September 2011, Revised in 2015)
Presidential Policy Directive (PPD) 41- United States Cyber Incident Coordination (July 26, 2016)
Conclusion
References
10 Securitization
Introduction
International Relations Theories
The Copenhagen School
Security Sectors
Military Sector
Environmental Sector
Societal Sector
Political Sector
Economic Sector
Sectored Approach and New Variables for Analysis
Regional Security Complex Theory
RSCT in North America
Military Sector
Environmental Sector
Societal Sector
Political Sector
Economic Sector
Conclusion
References
11 Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues (ELSI)
Introduction
Defining Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues
Main ELSI Domains and How to Address Them in Security Science
The Need for a Comprehensive Approach
Dilemmas of Security Science in Practice
Conclusion
References
12 Intelligence for Security
Intelligence as Process
Associated Activities: Covert Action and Counterintelligence
Intelligence Proliferation
Conclusions
References
13 Reconceptualizing Security Threats
Introduction
The Objectivity of Subjectivity of Security Threats
Security and Securitization
The Philosophical and Sociological Approaches of Securitization
The Relationship Between the Securitizing Actor and the Audience
Illustration: Austria-Hungary Securitization of Serbia prior WWI
Conclusions
References
14 Reconceptualizing Security Challenges
Introduction
Security, Nation States, and Protection
War, Security, and the Nation State
Security, the Digital Age, and Threat Perception
The Avalanche Effect
Toward a New ``Integrated Human Security´´ Framework
Conclusion
References
15 Civic Homeland Security Culture: A Poll Study Approach and the Example of Pennsylvania
Introduction
U.S. Homeland Security Context
Civic Homeland Security Culture
Poll Study Approach
Rationale and Relevance of Pennsylvania as an Example
Method
Limitations
Public Attitude Toward Homeland Security
Perceived Scope and Missions of Homeland Security
Perceived Locus of Responsibility for Homeland Security
Perceived Impact of Homeland Security on Daily Life
Conclusion
References
16 Reconceptualizing Security Vulnerabilities
Importance of Infrastructure and Its Operational Definition
Delineating Key Critical Infrastructure Elements and Systems
Determining Essential Infrastructural Priorities
Reckoning with Risk
Looking at Significant Variables in the Infrastructure Enterprise
The Dilemma and Challenge of Restoration, Recovery, and Resilience
Looking at EU vs US vs Global Infrastructure Strategies and Configuration
Key Focus Areas, Resilience, and Security Issues
Future Risks and the Future of Infrastructure
Taking a Look at Continuing Threats
Infrastructure Perspectives and Future Security Issues
Final Observations
References
17 Human Security
Free from Fear or Want
Geneses of Human Security as a United Nations Mission
The Paradigm of Protection and Empowerment
The Concept of Human Security
People-Centered
Multi-sectorial
Comprehensive
Context-Specific
Prevention-Oriented
Human Security in the Developing World
Phase 1: Analysis, Mapping, and Planning
Phase 2: Implementation
Phase 3: Impact Assessment
Criticism of Human Security
Human Security in Action: The First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
African States
Arab States
Asian States
European States
Latin America and the Caribbean States
The Social Palette: Populism and Nationalism as Primary Colors
Conclusion
References
18 Homeland Security: Concepts, Definitions, and Evolution
Introduction
Homeland Security: Defining the Undefinable?
Historical Tracings
The Relationship Between National Security, Public Safety, and Homeland Security
Summary and Conclusion
References
19 Economic Security: Conceptual and Operational Intersection of Trade Policy and National Security
Introduction
The National Security Investment Review Model
National Security Threat Assessment
Economic Security Threat Assessment
Case Studies of National Security Intervention
Veritas, US Genetic Sequencing Company
Grindr, US Dating Application
MoneyGram, US Money Transmitter
FDI: The China Threat
China as a Global Superpower
CFIUS and China
National Security Game Theory
Theory Convergence
The Game Theory Narrative
Global Trade Optimism
A Wicked Problem: Economic Security as National Security
Framework for the Future
Conclusion
References
20 Societal Security and COVID-19
Introduction
Assaults on Health Care Personnel
National Security
Use of the Military
Impact of the Virus on the Military
Vaccine Mandates in the Military
Vaccine Diplomacy
Law Enforcement
Cybersecurity Threats
Hacking
Dark Web
Phishing
Operation Stolen Promise
Security Recommendations
Conclusion
References
21 Counterterrorism
Introduction
US Department of Homeland Security Purpose
Prevention
Protection
Critical Infrastructure
Critical Infrastructure Sectors
Response
Recovery
Mitigation
References
22 Climate Security: Challenges and Opportunities for Homeland Security
Introduction
Homeland Security Postmortems
Climate Science and Homeland Security
Methodology
A Premortem Scenario-Planning Exercise: The Road to Climate Catastrophe
Slow-Onset Disaster (2030-2040)
America´s Waterloo (2040)
US Climate Change Policy Review
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
23 Modeling and Simulation for Security: An Overview
Introduction
Threat Analysis
Accidents and Attacks
Natural Hazards
Disease
Modeling the Built Environment
Interfacing with the Technological Environment
Modeling Human Behavior
Modeling Transportation and Mass Human Behavior
Modeling Past Events
Visualization and Results Communication
Security Simulation Examples
Conclusion
References
24 Non-traditional Security: A Risk-Centric View
Introduction
Illustrative Context: Health Security - COVID-19 Pandemic
Risk Lens of Security: Systemic Risks
Systemic Risks
Discussion
Risks and Non-traditional Security Landscape
Vulnerabilities Associated with Non-traditional Security
Analysis of Systemic and Transborder Risks
Systemic Risks and Creeping Crisis
Conclusion
References
25 Migration, Security Challenges, and National Security
Introduction
Theories of International Relations and Terminology
The Security Environment and National Security as a Concept
The Migration-Security Nexus: A Multilayered Security Approach
Migration and National Security Strategies: A Brief Overview
China
France
Russia
United Kingdom
USA
Current Challenges to National Security: Between Desecuritization and Enlargement
Conclusion
References
26 Space Security
Introduction to Security Space
Space Today Makes for a Better Tomorrow
Impact of Space-Based Capabilities in Homeland Security
Homeland Security Space Capabilities and Applications
Homeland Security Space Policy Overview
9/11: Defense and Intelligence Community Roles and Space Assets
US Space Force Capabilities for Homeland Security & Emergency Management
Climate Change, Space Security, and Emergency Management
Political Implications of Understanding and Responding to Climate Change
Connecting Space Security with Emergency Managers
Taking the Torch: Commercial Satellites Move In
Use and Access
Over Ten Years of Change
Plans and Challenges of Commercial EO/RS
Commercial Communications Leap
Military Satellites and Homeland Security, a Conundrum
Rocketry and Satellites in the 1950s and 1960s
The Chronometer, Compass, and Barometer Era
Clearing the Bureaucratic Culture
Command of Orbital Space
Constitutional Compliance and Congressional Laws
Delivery of Military Capabilities to Homeland Security
Conclusion
References
27 Aligning Security to General Systems Theory
Introduction
System
System Characteristics
System Performance
System Results
Risk and Security: Bare Foundations
Introduction to General Systems Theory
Systemology Architecture (Rousseau 2018)
Determining Society Need for Security
Security Philosophy
Security Science
Security Engineering
Security Measures and Metrics
Security Practice
Security Heuristics
Satisfying Society Need for Security
Conclusion
References
28 Systems Thinking and Security
Introduction to Systems Thinking
Themes (Derived from Keating et al. 2021) for Systems Thinking
The System in Systems Thinking
Causal Loop Diagrams - Visualizing Systems Thinking
Security Domains and Dynamics
Security as an Infinite Game
System Dynamics of Mission Fulfillment - Context for Security
Gap Closure and Four General Contexts
Gap Closure and Influences on Successful Mission Fulfillment
Combining Four General Contexts and Influences on Successful Mission Fulfillment
Degrees of Loss
Additional Influences on Systems Thinking About Security
Conclusion
References
29 Security Modeling and Simulation
Introduction to Modeling and Simulation
Modeling and Simulation Foundations
Modeling and Simulation: Reasons and Approaches
That Which We Model
Risk and Threat Models
Systems Dynamics Modeling Archetypes and Security
Shifting the Burden
Tragedy of the Commons
Drifting Goals
Fixes that Fail
Accidental Adversaries
Limits to Success
Modeling Cybersecurity Operations for Optimization and Multi-Year Planning
Modeling Conditional Probabilities
Calculating Priors for Conditional Probability
Conclusion
References
30 Food Security and Complex Disasters
Introduction to Food Security
Defining Food Security and Insecurity
Food Security Policy
Systems and Surveillance of Food Insecurity
Integrated Phase Classification
Famine Early Warning System Network
UN Surveillance Platforms
Global Hunger Index
Syndromic Reporting
What is the ``State of Food Security´´ Today?
Food Insecurity and Complex Humanitarian Emergencies
Food Insecurity and NATEC Disasters
Beyond Wasting: The ``Silent´´ Impacts
Conclusions
References
31 Cyber Security and Drones
Introduction
Accidents and Incidents Caused by Small Drones
Analysis of the Different Types of Threats
Tools and Tactics to Counter the Threat
Future Developments: Artificial Intelligence and Cybersecurity
Conclusions
References
32 Health Security
Introduction: Living in an Age of Heightened Health Threats
Global Health Security Defined
Modern History of Global Health Security
One Health: Consilience Necessary for Health Security
Going beyond Infection Control
General Health Security Preparedness Principles
Factors Impacting Health Security
Health Security Threats as Threats to National Security: US Examples
A Word About Health Security at the Local Level
Multi-Level Perspective of Health Security: Individual and Collective Health Security
Health Security as a Collective/Collaborative Practice
Pandemics as Instructive Health Security Examples
Opportunities and Recommendations
Reference
33 Disaster Management of a Major CBRN Accident
Introduction
Definitions of Terrorism
International Definitions of Terrorism
NATO Definition of Terrorism
DHS Definition of Terrorism
CIA Definitions of Terrorism
United Nations Indirect Definitions of Terrorism
EU Definitions of Terrorism
Comparative Table for ``Terrorism´´ Characteristic Elements
Terrorism and Subversion
Subversion
Technical Taxonomy of ``Violent Conflict´´
Terroristic Attack and Number of Deaths: Database on Terrorism
Terrorism Evolution Theories: Toward the Use of Unconventional Weapons
Theories on Terrorism: The Four Waves and the CBRNe Threat
WMD and CBRNe Weapons: Are They the Same Thing?
CBRNe Disaster Management System: The Italian Case Study
Conclusion and Future Development
References
34 Cyber Threats and National Security: The Use and Abuse of Artificial Intelligence
Introduction
Background
Definition
AI Use Cases and Societal Benefits
Adversarial Use of AI
Digital Security
Predictability and Explainability
Physical Security
Political Security
AI Security in Software
Countermeasures and Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Part II: National Defense (CBRNE)
35 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive Threats: An Introduction
References
36 High-Threat Chemical Agents: Current Trends and Future Perspective
Introduction
High-Threat Chemical Agents
Nerve Agents
Blistering Agents
Respiratory Agents
Blood Agents
Incapacitating Agents
Riot-Control Agents
Binary Nerve Agent and Nontraditional Agents (NTA)
Medical Management and Treatment
Chemical Agent Detection Technologies
General Requirements
Point Detectors
Colorimetric
Ion Mobility Spectrometry
Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors
Flame Photometry
Photoionization Detectors and Electrochemical Detectors
Carbon Nanotube Gas Ionization Sensors
Remote or Standoff Monitoring
Infrared Spectroscopy
Raman Spectroscopy
Summary and Perspective
References
37 Biological Agents: Threat and Response
Introduction
A Brief History
Biodefense and Biosecurity
Biological Versus Chemical Agents
General Classes of Biological Agents
Bacterial Agents: General
Bacterial Agents: Selected Examples
Anthrax
Brucellosis
Plague
Tularemia
Q Fever
Viruses
General Attributes of Viruses
Viral Agents
Smallpox
Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses
Rift Valley Fever
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis
Toxins
General Considerations
Specific Toxin Agents
Botulinum Neurotoxins
Staphylococcus
Ricin
Marine Toxins
Fungal Toxins
Biological Threat Spectrum
Epidemiological Clues
General Indicators
Syndromic Surveillance
Rate of Outbreak
Medical Considerations
Medical Management
Nursing Management Techniques
Antibiotic Resistance
Detection
Detect to Warn Versus Detect to Treat
Diagnostics and Identification
Forensics and Attribution
Decontamination
Agroterrorism
Responsibilities
Epidemiological Indicators
National Response Plan
Emerging Biological Threats
Synthetic Biology
Overview of Synthetic Biology
Evaluating the Threat
Complexity of Analysis
Biotechnological Agents
Natural Pandemics
Conclusion
References
General References
38 Radiological Dispersal Devices: Detection, Response, and Remediation
Introduction
RDD Construction and Risks (Fig. 1)
Detection
Detection Technologies
Response
Damage Assessment Tools
Casualty Prediction and Care Tools
Remediation
Conclusion
References
39 Nuclear Security Science
Introduction
Radiation Detection
Operational Goals
Technical Requirements
Gamma Detection
Semiconductor-Based Detectors
Scintillators
Neutron Detection
Neutron Multiplicity
Pulse Shape Discrimination (PSD)
Imaging
Coded Apertures
Neutron Scatter Camera
Muon Scatter Tomography
SNM Production Monitoring
Safeguards Technology
Mass Balance and Accountancy
Nondestructive Assay Methods
Destructive Analysis
Other Monitoring
Remote Monitoring
Hyperspectral Imaging
Laser-Based Approaches
Reactor Monitoring
Other Methods
Material Security and Interdiction
Analysis
Active Interrogation
Differential Die-Away
Mono-Energetic Sources
Nuclear Resonance Fluoroscopy (NRF)
Micro-Calorimeter
Warhead Security and Monitoring
Attributes and Templates
Information Barriers
Threat Response
Conclusion
References
40 Explosive Threats: The Challenges they Present and Approaches to Countering Them
Introduction
Current State of Explosive Threats
Deterrence
Prevention
Detection
What Is the Importance of Distance in Detecting the Explosive Threat?
What Needs to Be Detected, the Presence of a Threat or the Explosive Material Itself?
Is the Purpose/Need to Be Able to Detect a Trace Amount of Explosive or a Bulk Amount?
Does the Explosive Material Need to Be Identified in Addition to Being Detected?
Trace Detection Methods
Bulk Detection Methods
Methods for Trace or Bulk Detection
Delay and Protection
Response and Analysis
Summary and Outlook
References
Part III: Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime
41 Growing Nexus of Terrorism and Organized Crime: An Introduction
Introduction
Global Terrorist Actors
Crime-Terror Relationships
Direct Involvement
Strategic Alliances
Exploitative Relationship: Taxation and Extortion
Gaps in State Power
Prisons
Makarenko´s Crime-Terror Continuum
Gaps in Cyber Power
Crime and Terror the Hidden Links
The Way Forward
Reduce Recruitment and Flip Protection Economies
Eliminating Corruption
Conclusion
References
42 Migration and Crime
Introduction
A Note on Terminology
Migration Is Not a Crime: Legal Protections of Refugees and Migrants
Key Crimes Associated with Migration: Smuggling of Migrants and Trafficking in Persons
Smuggling of Migrants: A Supply and Demand Market
The Smuggling Protocol
Intent of the Perpetrator: Financial or Material Benefit
Protection from Prosecution
Smuggling Networks as Service Providers
Smugglers: Key Players in Contemporary Refugee Experiences
Trafficking in Persons
The Trafficking in Persons Protocol
Rights of Victims of Trafficking, Including Protection from Prosecution
Detention and Criminalization of Victims of Trafficking
Trafficking and Smuggling: Crimes on a Continuum
Depictions of Migrants as Criminals: Political and Public Discourse
The Relationship Between Immigration and Crime: Impacts of Securitizing the Migration Landscape
The Enhanced Vulnerability of Irregular Migrants to Organized Crime
Irregular Spaces: The Liminal and the Criminal
Shifting Perspectives: Criminality in Migration Contexts
What Steps Can Be Taken to Decrease Migrants´ Vulnerabilities to Crime?
References
43 Technology and Terror: The New Arsenal of Anarchy
Introduction
Technological Amplification: The Internet and Social Media
Technology for Psychological Operations
Technology for Recruitment: Terrorist Influencers
Technology for Psychological Operations: Improved Execution of Attacks
Technology for Training
Technology for Funding
Technology for Pseudonymity/Encryption
Emerging Technologies
New Technologies in the Battlespace
Autonomous Vehicles
Drones
Artificial Intelligence
Autonomous Weapons
Conclusions and the Way Forward
References
44 Global Trade of ``Illicit Goods´´
Introduction
The Definition of Illicit Trade
Mapping the Scale of the Problem
Counterfeit Goods
Excise Goods
Trade Misinvoicing of Goods
Substandard Goods
Illicit Trade and Environmental Crime
Illicit Drugs
Other Illicit Markets
The Illicit Service Economy
The Negative Impacts of Black Markets
Income for Organized Crime, Insurgents, and Terrorists
Loss of Income for Legitimate Actors
Human Deaths and Human Health
Economic Costs of Human Health
Growth of ``Criminal-Support Ecosystems´´
Environmental Destruction
Workers´ Rights
Bad Governance
Sustaining Rogue Regimes
Preliminary Conclusion: Illicit Trade Hampering Human Development
Strategic Use of Illicit Trade
The Net Effect of Illicit Trade in Short
Political Focus on Addressing Illicit Trade
Conclusion and Possible Ways Forward
Better Data
Completing Globalization
Targeting Problem-States with Collective Action
45 Evolution of Salafi-Jihadism
The Mutation of Salafi-jihadism
The First Generation: Arab Afghans
The Second Generation: al-Qaeda
Third Generation: ISIS
De-radicalization, Re-radicalization
What Comes Next?
References
46 Public Health Approach to Countering Violent Extremism and Proposing the Chain of Violent Radicalization
Introduction
Countering Violent Extremism Overview
Justification for a Public Health Perspective to Counter Violent Extremism
Applying Public Health Theory to Countering Violent Extremism
The Levels of Prevention
The Social Determinants of Health
The Socio-Ecological Model
Public Health Approaches to Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism
CONTEST: The UK Framework for Countering Violent Extremism
The State of California Office of Emergency Services Preventing Violent Extremism Program
The Nebraska Emergency Management Agency Countering Violent Extremism Program
Introducing a New Public Health Model: The Chain of Violent Radicalization
Discussion and Conclusions
References
47 Far-Right Contagion: The Global Challenge of Transnational Extremist Networks
Introduction
What Is the Far Right?
What Characteristics Define the Groups?
Dystopian Conspiracy Theories and Existential Demographic Threats
Accelerationists and SIEGE Culture
Right-Wing Terrorism
The Transnational Terrorism Ecosystem
Right-Wing Extremism Is Recognized
Right-Wing Extremism in Germany
Right-Wing Extremism in the United States
Right-Wing Extremism in the United States
Sports as a Channel to Right-Wing Transnational Terrorism
Transnational Terrorism and the War in Ukraine
Transnational Terrorism in the Virtual World
Baby Wolves: Recruiting the Next Generation of Extremists
Livestreaming Hate Online
Funding Hate Online: How Extremists Are Raising Money
Covid-19
Militias and the Threats Emanating from the Military and Police
Conclusion
Selected Agencies and Initiatives for Countering and Preventing Violent (Right-Wing) Extremism
References
48 Education in Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism (P/CVE) Among the Youth
Definitions
Catching Them When They Are Young
The Terrorists´ Insatiable Appetite for the Young
Terrorism Answering the Existential Questions of the Young?
Youth in Pursuit of Significance
Education: The Primary Defense in P/CVE Among the Youth?
Reimagining Education
Education and P/CVE: A Natural Connection
P/CVE ``Conduits´´ in Schools
Facilitating and Engineering Contact Among Students
Academic Subjects
Enhancing Religious and Cultural Literacy Among Students
Volunteerism
Arming the Youth: Equipping the Student in P/CVE
The Role of the Teacher in P/CVE
The Need for Backup
Challenges of a Whole-of-Education Approach in P/CVE
Lack of Studies on the Effectiveness of Educational Interventions in P/CVE
Limitations of Educational Interventions in P/CVE in Addressing Some Local Drivers and Radicalization and Recruitment
The Substance and Delivery of P/CVE Content in Educational Institutions Could Alienate Parts of the Population
Limitations of Teaching Values and Skillsets
Lack of Evidence If Intergroup Contact Can Lead to Mutual Respect
Educators and Institutes of Education May Not Welcome P/CVE Responsibilities
Teachers Are Unwilling, Unclear, or Untrained on How to Conduct P/CVE Responsibilities
Conclusion
References
49 Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: Best Practices and Standardizations
Introduction
Terms
P/CVE Best Practices
The Category of Extremist
Threat Level and Threat Imminence
Direct or Indirect Engagement Methods
Types of P/CVE Programs
Local Policing and Community Resilience
Deradicalization Programs
Online Programs
Social Inclusion and Diversity
Economic Development
Investments in Public Goods
The Role of Women
Targeting Youth
P/CVE Best Practices
Bibliography
50 Countering Radicalization and Terrorism in Indonesia
Introduction
Background
Lie at Dawn or the Failure of Democratic-Islam in Post-independence Indonesia (1950s-mid-1970s)
The Enemy Within, or the Importation of Radical Islam in Indonesia (mid-1970s-1990s)
A Season in Hell, or Indonesia´s Reformasi Facing Terrorism (2000s-2010s)
The Caliphate Strikes Back, or Indonesia Facing the Rise and Fall of ISIS (2014-2021)
Diagnostics
Result Assessment of Past Policies
What Should Be the Priorities?
Policy Recommendations
Policy Recommendations for a National Strategy Against Radicalization
First Pillar: Improve the Situation of Individuals
Second Pillar: Messages Perceived by Individuals
Policy Recommendations for a National Deradicalization Strategy
First Pillar: Efficient Support to Radicalized Inmates
Second Pillar: Efficient Risk Assessment Procedures
Conclusion
Appendices
Index terms
Bibliography
51 Terrorism in the Middle East and North African Region
Overview
Defining the Middle East and North Africa Region
Defining Terrorism
Terrorist Incidents
Terrorism in the Middle East
Motives
Local Impact
International Impact
Terrorism in North Africa
Political Fragility and the Rise of Terrorism
Anti-Western Extremism
Al-Qaeda and Affiliated Groups
Daesh and Affiliated Groups
Finance in Terrorist Organizations
Radicalization Dynamics
Final Thoughts
Conclusions
References
Part IV: Physical Security, Cyber Security, and Critical Infrastructure: An Introduction
52 Physical Security, Cyber Security, and Critical Infrastructure: An Introduction
Introduction
Conclusion
References
53 CSBMs for the Cyber Realm
Introduction: Preparations for Cyber War Endanger International Security
First International Efforts for CBMs
CSBMs for Cyber Forces
An International Monitoring System for Cyberspace
Conclusion
References
54 Cybersecurity of Critical Infrastructures
Introduction
Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity: How Real Is the Threat?
Cyberattack Could Knock Out Electric Grid: There Is No General Agreement
Where Cybersecurity and Process Safety Meet
The Importance of Security Standards
Emerging Trends in Critical Infrastructure Protection
Conclusions
References
55 Cryptographic Controls: The Heart of Cybersecurity
Introduction
Fundamentals of Cryptography
Confidentiality Tools
Data Integrity Tools
Entity Authentication Tools
Cryptosystems
Further Reading
References
56 The Cyber Dimension as a New Warfare Domain
References
Index