Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology & Systems

Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology & Systems
Contents
Preface
About the Editors
Section I: Wind Power Systems
Chapter 1: Steady-State Modeling of DFIG-Based Wind Energy System for Unbalanced Operation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Load-Flow Algorithms for Unbalanced Distribution Systems with Voltage Regulators
1.2.1 Newton–Raphson
1.2.2 Backward and Forward Sweep
1.2.3 Sequential Load Flow
1.2.4 Case Study: Comparison of Computational Requirement and Convergence
1.3 Steady-State Representation of Type-III Wind Energy System
1.3.1 Representation of Wind Turbine
1.3.2 DFIG Sequence Model
1.3.3 Operating Limits
1.3.4 Representation with NR Load-Flow Algorithm
1.3.5 Representation with SQ Load-Flow Algorithm
1.4 Comparison between Models Represented with NR and SQ Algorithms
1.4.1 Results of Load-Flow Algorithms for Comparing Various Operating Modes
1.4.2 Limit Violation
1.5 Summary
1.6 References
Chapter 2: Study of Mathematical Modeling and Small-Signal Stability of a WindDriven DFIG-Based System Using Different Types of Control Approach
List of Acronyms and Symbols
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Modelling of DFIG-based Wind Systems
2.2.1 Wind Turbine Model
2.2.2 Drive-Train Model
2.2.3 Concept of Maximum Power Curve
2.2.4 Wind Turbine Generator Model
2.2.5 Grid-Side Converter Filter Model
2.2.6 DFIG Powers Model
2.2.7 DC-Link Model
2.3 Small-Signal Analysis Concept of the DFIG-based Wind Systems
2.3.1 Concept of Model Linearization
2.3.2 Eigenvalues Analysis
2.4 Control Strategies for DFIG-Based WECS
2.4.1 PI Controller
2.4.2 LQR Controller
2.4.3 Observer-based Controller
2.5 Results and Discussions
2.6 Summary
2.7 References
2.8 Appendix-A: System Parameters
Chapter 3: Voltage Stability with Wind Power Generation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Voltage Stability
3.3 Wind Power Generation Technologies
3.3.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Generator
3.3.2 Limited Variable-Speed Wind Generator
3.3.3 Doubly Fed Induction generator
3.3.4 Full-Converter Wind Generator
3.4 Voltage Stability Studies with Wind Generation
3.5 Small-Disturbance Voltage Stability with Wind Power Generation
3.6 Short-Term Voltage Stability with Wind Power Generation
3.7 Long-Term Voltage Stability with Wind Power Generation
3.8 Conclusions
3.9 References
Chapter 4: Seasonal Impact of Wind Turbine Integration on the Performance of Radial Distribution Networks: A Comparative Case Study with Practical Wind Data of Southern India
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Site Description and Wind Turbine Specifications
4.3 Mathematical Model of Load, Substation Voltage, Wind Speed, and Wind Turbine
4.3.1 Load Modelling
4.3.2 Time-Independent Load Modelling Using Probability Distribution Function
4.3.3 Time-Dependent Load Modelling Using Statistical Data
4.3.4 Substation Voltage Modelling
4.3.5 Wind Speed Model
4.4 Wind Turbine Modelling
4.4.1 Wind Turbine Power Output
4.4.2 Wind Turbine Capacity Factor
4.4.3 Wind Speed Variation with Hub Height
4.5 Optimum Location for Wind Turbine Placement
4.6 Performance Indices
4.6.1 Voltage Deviation Index
4.6.2 Active Power Loss Index
4.6.3 Reactive Power Loss Index
4.6.4 Line Loading Index
4.7 Computational Procedure
4.8 Case Study
4.9 Numerical Results
4.9.1 Impact of Wind Turbine Placement on VDI
4.9.2 Impact of Wind Turbine Placement on APLI
4.9.3 Impact of Wind Turbine Placement on RPLI
4.9.4 Impact of Wind Turbine Placement on LLI
4.9.5 Voltage Probability Density Function Plots
4.10 Summary
4.11 References
Chapter 5: Wind Power Plant System Services
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Wind Power Plant Characteristics
5.3 Need for System Services
5.3.1 Frequency Reserves
5.3.2 Voltage Support
5.4 Overview of Grid Code Requirements
5.4.1 Maintaining Frequency and Voltage Ranges for Normal Operation
5.4.2 Active Power Control
5.4.3 Reactive Power/Voltage Control
5.4.4 Frequency Regulation
5.4.5 Frequency Control
5.4.6 Fault Ride-Through Capability
5.4.7 Reactive Current Injection
5.4.8 Post-Fault Active Power Recovery
5.4.9 Synthetic Inertia Capability
5.4.10 Power Oscillations Damping Control
5.4.11 Active Power Control during Storm Conditions
5.5 WPP Services
5.5.1 Hierarchical Control Architecture
5.6 System Services during Different States of Power Systems
5.6.1 Normal Operation
5.6.2 Alert Operation
5.6.3 Emergency Operation
5.7 References
Section II: Solar PV Systems
Chapter 6: Solar Thermal Electric Power Plants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Solar Thermal Systems
6.2.1 Solar Thermal Storage
6.2.2 Hybrid Facilities
6.2.3 Economic Considerations
6.3 CSP Systems
6.3.1 Parabolic Trough Collectors
6.3.2 Central Receiver Systems
6.3.3 Stirling Engine
6.4 Low-Temperature Solar Thermal Approaches
6.4.1 Solar Salt Pond
6.4.2 Solar Chimney
6.5 Environmental Impact
6.6 Conclusion
6.7 References
Chapter 7: Solar Energy Calculations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Earth’s Orbit
7.3 Solar Constant and Solar Spectra
7.4 Solar Angles [11,12]
7.5 Collector Angles
7.6 Solar Irradiance
7.7 Comparison to Measured Data
7.8 PV Energy Conversion
7.9 Conclusion
7.10 References
Chapter 8: Parameter Estimation of Solar Photovoltaic and Impact of Environmental Conditions on Its Performance
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Solar PV Cell Models and its Physics
8.2.1 Ideal PV Cell Model
8.2.2 Single-Diode Rs Model
8.2.3 Single-Diode
8.2.4 Two-Diode PV Model
8.2.5 Junction Capacitance Single-Diode Rp Model
8.2.6 Selection of Rp and Rs
8.3 Configuration of Solar PV Modules and Array
8.3.1 Cell to Module Configuration
8.3.2 Module to Array Configuration
8.4 The I-V and P-V Characteristic of Solar PV
8.5 Impact of Environmental Conditions on Performance Characteristics of PV
8.6 Importance of Modelling and Parameter Estimation of Solar PV
8.6.1 Existing Parameter Estimation Techniques
8.7 Analysis of 200 W Module
8.7.1 I-V and P-V Characteristics of 200-W KC200GT at L1
8.7.2 I-V and P-V Characteristics of 200-W KC200GT at L2
8.8 Conclusion
8.8.1 Unsolved Examples
8.9 References
Chapter 9: Power Electronics for Solar Photovoltaic System: Configuration, Topologies, and Control
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Solar PV Energy Generation Systems
9.1.2 Solar PV Cell
9.1.3 Equivalent Electrical Circuit for Solar PV Cell
9.1.4 Status and Scenario of Solar PV System [19–20]
9.2 Types of Solar PV Cell [23]
9.2.1 Monocrystalline Silicon PV Panels
9.2.2 Amorphous/Thin-Film Solar Panels
9.2.3 Hybrid Silicon Solar Panels
9.3 Different Configurations of Solar PV Energy System
9.3.1 Single-Stage DC–DC Converter for DC Load
9.3.2 Single-Stage DC–AC Converter for AC Load
9.3.3 Two-Stage DC–DC Converter for DC Load
9.3.4 Two-Stage DC–AC Converter for AC Load
9.4 Grid Connection Topologies (Structure-Based) for Solar PV System
9.4.1 MPPT in Solar PV Systems
9.5 DC–DC Converter for DC Load Used in Solar PV Systems
9.6 Single-Phase Inverter (Transformer-Less) Topologies
9.7 Three-Phase Inverter (Transformer-Less) Topologies
9.8 Different Control Schemes for Grid-Tied PV Inverter System
9.9 Conclusion
9.10 References
Chapter 10: Design Aspects of Solar PV Modules, Selection of Battery, and Protection Schemes
10.1 Load Estimation
10.2 Load Calculation
10.2.1 Domestic/Commercial Load
10.2.2 Solar PV Water Pumping System
10.2.3 Sizing of PV Array
10.2.4 Energy Irradiation Calculation
10.3 Case Studies and Examples
10.4 Battery for PV Systems
10.4.1 Classification of Battery
10.4.2 Energy and Power Density
10.4.3 Battery Selection
10.4.4 PV System Design with Battery Sizing
10.5 Battery Equalization
10.6 Protection Schemes
10.6.1 Battery Protection
10.6.2 Array Protection
10.6.3 Cabling
10.6.4 Earthing and Lightning Protection
10.7 Future Issues and Challenges
10.8 Conclusion
10.9 References
Solar PV Single-Phase Supply Systems
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Single-Phase Grid-Connected System
11.2.1 DC/AC Single-Phase Inverter
11.3 PV-Connected Single-Phase Grid in Matlab/Simulink
11.4 Model of the PV Generator Model
11.4.1 DC–LC Filter
11.4.2 Inverter Model
11.4.3 Isolation Transformer
11.4.4 Utility Grid
11.5 Simulation and Analysis of Results
11.6 MPPT Controller
11.7 Simulation and Results Analysis
11.8 Conclusion
11.9 References
Chapter 12: Techno-Commercial Analysis of Microinverters as a Future Technology in Solar PV Power Generation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Evolution of the Grid-Connected Inverter
12.2.1 The Past
12.2.2 The Present
12.2.3 The Future
12.3 Standards and Requirements for the Future Inverters
12.3.1 Standards of PV Systems
12.3.2 Performance Requirements of PV Converters
12.4 MI Design Objective
12.5 Topologies of MI
12.5.1 Single-Stage MI
12.5.2 Multistage MI
12.6 Effect of Partial Shading and Dusting
12.6.1 Strategies to Deal with Partial Shading
12.6.2 Experimental Investigation for 1 kW PV System
12.6.3 Analysis of Experimental PV System Under Dusting Condition
12.7 Economics of PV
12.8 Conclusion
12.9 References
Chapter 13: Protection of Feeders with High Rooftop PV Penetration
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Considered Network
13.3 System Modelling and Analysis
13.4 Impact of One PV
13.4.1 Voltage Profile
13.4.2 Transformer Current and Short-Circuit Fault Level
13.4.3 Important Notes
13.5 Impact of Multiple PVs
13.5.1 Voltage Profile
13.5.2 Transformer Current
13.5.3 Important Notes
13.6 PV Disconnection
13.6.1 Single-Phase Faults
13.6.2 Three-Phase Faults
13.6.3 Important Notes
13.7 Summary
13.8 References
Section III: Hybrid Powers/Micro Grid/Distributed Generation
Chapter 14: Design and Evaluation of Microgrids Based on Renewable Energy Technologies with a Perspective of Sustainable Development
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Energy and Its Relevance to Human Development Index
14.1.2 Sustainable Development Goals and Its Relationship with Energy
14.1.3 Global Energy Access Overview and Challenges in Improving Energy Access
14.1.4 Role of Renewable Energy Sources in Realizing Energy for All
14.2 Microgrids Based on Renewables: A New Paradigm for Energy Access
14.2.1 Problems Associated with the Deployment of Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources
14.3 Proposed Generalized Framework for Sustainable Rural Microgrid Design
14.3.1 Level 1—Selection of Energy Alternatives Using Decision Analysis
14.3.2 Level 2—Load Growth Projections and Feasibility Analysis of Microgrid Alternatives
14.3.3 Level 3—Final Microgrid Alternative Selection
14.4 Conclusion
14.5 References
Chapter 15: Optimal Sizing of Hybrid Energy Systems
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Modelling of HRES
15.2.1 Modelling of PV Systems
15.2.2 WECS Modelling
15.2.3 Modelling of Energy Storage Systems
15.2.4 Modelling of Diesel Generator System
15.3 Need of Multi-Criterion for HRES Optimization
15.3.1 Total System Cost (TSC)
15.3.2 Annualized System Cost (ASC)
15.3.3 Net Present Cost (NPC)
15.3.4 Cost of Energy (COE)/Levelized Cost of Energy (LCE)
15.3.5 Lifelong Cost of Battery (LLCB)
15.3.6 Loss of Power Supply Probability (LPSP)
15.3.7 Expected Energy Not Supplied (EENS)
15.3.8 Loss of Load (LOL)
15.3.9 Deficiency of Power Supply Probability (DPSP)
15.4 Optimal Sizing Techniques
15.4.1 Global Search and Optimization Algorithm (GSOA)
15.4.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
15.4.3 Fuzzy Logic (FL)
15.4.4 Conditioning Approximate Reasoning (CAR)
15.4.5 Software-Based Techniques
15.4.6 Mathematical Iterative Approach
15.5 Conclusion
15.6 References
Chapter 16: Techno-Economic Evaluation of Hybrid Renewable Energy Sources for a University Campus
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Background of the Study
16.2.1 Description
16.2.2 Load Profile
16.2.3 The Proposed Hybrid System
16.3 System Components of Hybrid RES
16.3.1 Wind Energy
16.3.2 Solar Energy
16.3.3 Battery System
16.3.4 Inverter
16.4 Simulation Results and Discussions
16.4.1 System Optimization
16.4.2 Performance Indicators
16.5 Conclusion
16.6 References
Chapter 17: Optimal Distributed Resources Allocation in Contemporary Distribution Systems
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Optimal Allocation of DRs
17.2.1 Optimal Placement of SCs
17.2.2 Optimal Placement of DGs
17.2.3 Simultaneous Allocation of SCs and DGs
17.3 Optimal DR Allocation and NR
17.4 Annual Load Profile Modelling Considering Load Diversity among Customers
17.5 Problem Formulation
17.5.1 Optimal DR Allocation
17.5.2 Network Reconfiguration
17.6 Application Results
17.7 Result Analysis
17.7.1 Integrated Approach for DR Allocation and NR
17.7.2 Importance of Considering Load Diversity
17.7.3 Importance of Considering Dedicated Feeders on Node Voltage Profile
17.8 Summary
17.9 References
Chapter 18: Multiobjective Approach for Optimal Placement of DG Units at Optimum Power Factor Along with Shunt Capacitors for Distribution Systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Performance Indices of Distribution System
18.3 Multiobjective Function Formation
18.4 Operational Constraints on the Distribution System
18.5 Modeling of DG Units and SCs
18.6 Selection of Optimum Nodes for the Placement of DG Units
18.7 Selection of Optimum Nodes for the Placement of SCs
18.8 Methods of Optimal Selection of Nodes for DGs and SCs
18.8.1 Sensitivity Analysis Method
18.8.2 Simultaneous Optimization Method
18.9 Case Studies
18.10 Summary
18.11 References
Chapter 19:
Control and Stability of Microgrids
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Microgrid Control
19.2.1 The Primary Controller
19.2.2 The Secondary Controller
19.2.3 The Tertiary Controller
19.3 Control of DERs
19.4 Power-Sharing among DERs
19.4.1 Technique-1
19.4.2 Technique-2
19.4.3 Technique-3
19.5 Control of BESs
19.6 Microgrid Central Controller
19.6.1 Dynamic Power Ratio Adjustment
19.6.2 Droop Curve Adjustment
19.6.3 Selection of a Suitable Internal Balancing Inductance
19.7 Small Signal Stability of a Microgrid
19.8 Summary
19.9 References
Section IV: Miscellaneous: Power Quality, Smart Grid
Chapter 20: Power Quality Problems and Solutions in Renewable Energy
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Power Electronic Structures of Grid-Connected PV and Wind Systems
20.2.1 Grid-Connected PV System
20.2.2 Grid-Connected Wind Turbine System
20.3 Need of Power Quality Studies
20.3.1 Power Quality Issues in Grid Integration of Renewable Energy System
20.3.2 International Standards
20.3.3 Parameters of Power Quality
20.4 Economics of Power Quality Issues
20.4.1 Direct Costs
20.4.2 Indirect Costs
20.5 Mitigation of Power Quality Problems
20.5.1 Shunt PFs
20.5.2 Active Power Filters
20.5.3 STATCOM
20.6 Summary
20.7 References
Chapter 21: Optimal Economic Incentive for Renewable Energy in Composite Expansion Planning
Nomenclature
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Renewable Energy Sources
21.2.1 Wind Energy
21.2.2 Solar Energy
21.3 Incentives Schemes for RES
21.3.1 Production-Based Incentives
21.3.2 Investment-Based Incentives
21.4 Mathematical Modelling
21.4.1 Objective Function
21.4.2 Model Constraints
21.5 Numerical Test
21.5.1 IEEE 24-Bus Test System
21.5.2 48-Bus System of Nigeria Power Network
21.6 Simulation Results
21.6.1 IEEE 24-Bus System
21.6.2 48-Bus System of Nigeria Power Network
21.7 Discussion of Results
21.8 Conclusion
21.9 References
Appendices
Chapter 22: Demand Dispatch for Renewable Energy Integration in Prosumer Smart Grids
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Smart Grid
22.2.1 Architecture
22.2.2 Nomenclature
22.2.3 Component Modelling
22.2.4 Energy Balance
22.3 Problem Formulation
22.4 Methodology
22.5 Numerical Tests
22.5.1 Experimental Setup
22.5.2 Results
22.6 Discussion
22.7 Conclusion
22.8 References
Index