Handbook of Racism, Xenophobia, and Populism: All Forms of Discrimination in the United States and Around the Globe

Preface - WHAT ABOUT REFIGURING ``RACE´´?
References
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Introduction
Historical Antecedents: The Materialist Beginnings
Christopher Columbus
Jim Crow
Nazism
Racism Beyond the Western World
Functions and Ideology
Conclusion
References
Part I: Rethinking the Nature of Prejudice
Populism: A Conceptual Overview
Introduction
Right-Wing Populism
Demagogy
Neoliberalism
Anti-Immigrationism
Tomatoes and the Political Economy of Immigration
Healthcare Personnel and Brain-Drain
Democracy
Procedural Versus Substantive Democracy
Meritocracy
Conclusion
References
Demagogy and Populism in the Americas
Introduction
North America: Donald Trump´s Demagogy and the American Dream
Protofascism
Immigration and the ``Ideology´´ of the Southern Border
The Haitian Refugees
South America: Jair Bolsonaro-The ``Trump of the Tropics´´
Climate Change
Conclusion
References
Seeking Control of Life and the World Through Populist Politics
Introduction
Locus of Control
Smart vs. Stupid
Work
Regaining a Sense of Control
Religion
Prejudice
Locus of Control Meets the Politicians
References
Truth and Democracy: An Uncomfortable Relation in Contemporary American Democracy
Introduction
Legitimizing Slavery
Slavery as the Root Cause of the Civil War
Jim Crow-Era Racism
Tea Party Politics in the Twenty-First Century
Whose Vote Counts?
Conclusion
References
Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge
Introduction
The Christian Bible
The Declaration of Independence
The U.S. Constitution
The Slave Struggle
Limitations of Civil Rights
The CRT Critique
Case Study: Needmore Community
Psychology and CRT
Jeremiah´s Solutions
Allow Them All to Be Seen
Efforts to Stop CRT
Culture Wars
The Problem with the Political Parties
References
The Relationship Between Mainstream and Populist Parties: The Portuguese Case
Introduction
Revisiting the Concepts
The Relationship Between Mainstream and Populist Parties
The Formation of the Portuguese Party System
The Relationship Between Mainstream and Populist Parties in Portugal
A Short Reflection on the Portuguese Electoral Results
Conclusion
References
``I Can´t Breathe´´: The Bible and Bonhoeffer on Race and Suffering in America
Introduction
Protests and Power
The Inequality of ``I Can´t Breathe´´
A Spirituality for the Suffering
A God Who Can´t Breathe
References
The Swedish Nightmare: The Dismantlement of Bounding Social Capital in Scandinavian Welfare States
Introduction
Objective
Research Methodology
Demographic Characteristics of Iranians in Scandinavian Countries
Sweden
Denmark
Norway
Investigating Cultural and Social Integration
Investigating Economic Integration
Sweden
Denmark
Norway
The Paradox: Divided We Stand, Together We Fall
Comprehending the Paradox
Entrepreneurial Activities: Self-employment
Theoretical Elaborations: Searching for an Answer-Toward Theoretical and Empirical Hypothesis
Theoretical Elaboration A: Acculturation
Theoretical Elaboration B: Trust
Theoretical Elaboration C: Loyalty and Solidarity
Theoretical Elaboration D: Social Capital, the Nature, and the Dynamic of the Ethnic Community
Conclusion
References
Governance for Sustainable Development Goals in Cosmopolitan Governance: Basic Ethical Principles for Ethical Behavior in Publ...
Introduction
Peacekeeping, Respect for Human Dignity, and Sustainable Development Goals in Public and International Organizations
Organizational Governance and Stakeholder Management for Sustainability
Basic Ethical Principles of Values-Driven Management in International Organizations
Conclusion
References
Self-esteem and Intergroup Discrimination
Introduction
The Minimal Group Paradigm
The Measurement of Self-esteem
Self-esteem a `Relative State´
Summary
Method
Results
Intergroup Discrimination
Experimental Group Self-esteem
Control Group Self-esteem
Discussion
Theoretical Implications
Practical Implications
Conclusion
References
Domain-Specific Self-esteem, Threats to Group Value and Intergroup Discrimination Amongst Minimal and Real Groups
Introduction
Study 1
Results
Manipulation Checks
Ingroup Favoring Allocations
Self-esteem
Discussion of Study 1
Study 2
Results
Manipulation Checks
Negative Outcome Allocations
Self-esteem
Discussion of Study 2
Conclusion
References
Part II: The Nature of Bias and Aggressive Policing
The Nature of Bias: Effects of Institutionalized Prejudices and Theoretical Explanations for Its Development
Introduction
Institutional Biases
Discrimination in the Educational Environment
The Privatization of Public Schools
The New Battleground for Prejudicial Attacks on Education: Social Media
Theoretical Explanations for Prejudice
The Roots of Bias: Ingroup Favoritism and Outgroup Derogation
Five Theoretical Explanations for the Development of Group Biases
Conclusion: Addressing Issues of Diversity
References
The Correlates of Prejudice: Groupthink and Individual Psychological Attributes
Introduction
Indoctrination and Groupthink
Religious Fundamentalism as a Driver of Prejudice
Right-Wing Political Ideology and Authoritarianism
Individual Cognitive and Psychological Attributes
Conclusion
References
Many Roads Lead to Rome-College, Career, Commitment (Marriage or Profession), Oh My: Is Conceiving All These Still Extrinsical...
Introduction
Method
Study One: Focus Group Interview
Respondents
Procedure
Results and Discussion
Life Roles Orientation (Family and Career Issues)
Influences
Confidence and Commitment
Gender Self-Concept and Discrimination
Study Two
Method
Respondents
Procedure
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Police Fiction: Native American Activists´ Political Murders at or Near Pine Ridge, South Dakota, 1973-1976
Leonard Peltier´s Run-in with the FBI
Peltier´s Early Life
Shootout at the Jumping Bulls´ Ranch
Peltier´s Pursuit and Prosecution
The Impossible Sighting
Demands for a New Trial
Gumshoes Come Calling
Police Spying Backfires
Two Intelligence Bureaucracies at Work
Building Maestas´ FBI File
Wounded Knee Intelligence
Sounding Slightly Deviant and Dangerous
Rumors Spread by the Seattle Police
Making Nearly Nothing Sound Vaguely Sinister
Dossier of a Supposed Subversive
Following Maestas Day by Day
Further Reading
``A Double-Edged Sword´´: Black Collegiate Women´s Perceptions of Law Enforcement
Introduction
Review of Literature
Critical Race Theory
The Devaluation of Black Women in American History
The Devaluation of African American Women
Jezebel and Mammy: Stereotypical Sexual Images of African American Women
Devaluation of African American Women Regarding Beauty and Body Images
The Strong Black Woman (SBW)
Police Use of Force and the Normalization of Black Deaths
The Normalization of Police Violence against Black People in America
What Is Excessive Force?
Methodology
Data Analysis
Findings
Theme 1: Negative
Theme 2: Conflicting
Theme 3: Law Enforcers
Theme 4: Racist
Discussion
Limitations of the Current Study
Directions for Future Research
Conclusion
References
Part III: Social Identity and Intergroup Behavior
How Ingroup Favoritism Functions As a Defense Against Threat
Introduction
Background
Mortality Salience
Terror Management Theory
Worldview Defense
Ingroup Favoritism
Self-Esteem
Locus of Control
Mortality Salience vs Control Threat
Summary
Study 1
Method
Participants
Experimental Design
Materials and Procedure
Threat and Baseline Manipulations
Self-Esteem
Locus of Control
Ingroup and Outgroup Evaluations
Results
Intergroup Differences
Ingroup Favoritism
Mortality Salience (MS): Relations between the Variables: Correlation and Regression Analysis in the MS Condition
Control Threat: Relations Between the Variables-Correlation and Regression Analysis
Baseline: Relations between the Variables-Correlation and Regression Analysis
Discussion of Study 1
Study 2
Method
Participants
Experimental Design
Materials and Procedure
Study 2 Results
Intergroup Differences
Ingroup Favoritism
Mortality Salience: Relations between the Variables-Correlation and Regression Analysis
Control Threat: Relations Between the Variables-Correlation and Regression Analysis
Baseline: Relations Between the Variables: Correlation and Regression Analysis
Study 2 Discussion
General Discussion
Mortality Salience
Control Threat
Differences Between Threats
Limitations
Implications
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Xenophobic Scapegoating and Racism
Umshini Wami (Cry, the Beloved Continent!): Erasing South Africa´s Worsening Toxic Afrophobia, Afronegativity and Xeno-Racism-...
Introduction
South Africa
Context and Experience
Starkville, Mississippi
OneRace
Black and White Rainbow, South Africa
Desmond Tutu
Nelson Mandela
Mandela´s Inaugural Speech
Conclusion
References
Xenophobia in the United States: Structural Drivers
Introduction
Defining Xenophobia
Foundational Concepts
States and Nations
Nationalism
Colonialism
Self-Determination
Structural Drivers
Legitimizing the Settler State
Empowering the Settler State
Encouraging Internal Unification
Unleashing Raw Political Power
Building Better Enemies
Avoiding (Some of) the Costs of Empire
Conclusion
References
The (Re) Emergence of Eco-Fascism: A History of White-Nationalism And Xenophobic Scapegoating
Introduction
Demonization and Blaming Disasters on the Witch
Eugenics or Science of Racial Betterment Against the ``Alien Invasion´´
Contemporary Eugenics and Xenophobia
Eco-Fascism and Greenwashing of Xenophobia
References
India: Hindus and Muslims-Religion and Racism
Overturning a Secular Republic
Reducing Muslims´ Civil Rights
Detention Camps for Muslims
Kidnapping, Rape, and Murder
Riots Explode Across India
Problems Requiring Co-operation: The World´s Dirtiest Air
Delhi ``Gasping for Breath´´
Smog Costs India $80 Billion a Year
The Pervasiveness of India´s Dirty Air
Suddenly Going Solar
References
Part V: Africentricism and Non-Eurocentric Perspectives
Aziboist Concepts and Psycho-Cultural-Political Orientations for Socially Engineering Aright the New African Person
Introduction
Backdrop (or Why Bother Anyhow?)
What This Chapter Is About
The Social Engineering Imperative: Prototypical African Personality Profiles (and Identity)
Afrocizing and the 3R´s
Items Constituting African-Centered Social Theory
The Three Overarching Items
African-Centered Social Theory Particularization
References
Debunking False Theoretical Concepts, Appreciating Asylums and Fending Off Media Attacks, Theological Misorientation, and Sexu...
Introduction
Will the Real Identity Reality Please Step Forward: Displacing Prevailing False Concepts
Creating a Sheltered Rear with Asylums
Fight the Media
Fight Eurasian Religious Establishmentarianism in Blackface
Fighting Sexual Misorientation
By Way of Conclusion
Are ``Aziboists´´ Part of the Solution?
Fighting: Ink and/or Blood?
Thoughts Toward Non-Hegemonic World Psychology
References
Listening to Blutopia: Sounds of Afrofuturism
Introduction
Four Questions (and a Few More)
References
Discography
The Fascinating Legacy of Yoruba Culture, Gods, and the Genesis of Civilization
Introduction
Yorùb Philosophy
The Culture, Myth, and Worldview
Yorùb Folk Music Culture and Influence on Kwanzaa and Modern American Music: Jazz-Rock Mix from Country Music to Rhythm and Bl...
Traditional Dress, Tribal Marks, and Traditional Yoruba Hairstyles
Traditional Yoruba Food
Creation Story Among the Yorùb
General Conclusion
References
Santeria (African Cultural Ideas) Under Attack: The Attempted Erasure of Lucumi and Extinguishing of a Cultural Candle
Introduction
The Approach
Resisting Toward Reality
An Overview of Propaganda
Santeria: Between Sensationalism and Secrets
Debasement of African People
Propaganda and Spirituality
Resilience and Adaptability of African Spiritual Practices
Deeper True History of Santeria
Spiritual vs. Racial Hierarchies
Gender and Power in African Spirituality
Spiritual Propaganda and Appropriation
Anti-African Propaganda of Biblical Proportions
Questions and Answers in the Age of Spiritual Spin
The Conclusion Is the Solution
Hip-Hop as an Answer to Propaganda
References
Caste, Class and Globalisation in India Revisited: Some Aspects of Continuity and Change
Introduction
Caste and Class: Converging, Diverging and Intersecting Identities
Caste, Class and Social Transformation
Globalisation and New Avatars of Casteism
Notes
References
Tenskwatawa, The Holy Man of the Pan-Indian Resistance, 1804-1810
Introduction
Part VI: Pandemics and Environmental Crisis
Racism and Inequality in the Deep South: The Health and Sociocultural Correlates of HIV/AIDS Among African Americans and the L...
Introduction
Legacy of Slavery, Racism, and Inequality in the Deep South
Analysis of the Data
Research Objective 1
Research Objective 2
Research Objective 3
Methodology Section
Confidentiality
Minimizing the Risks of Harm to Human Participants
Research Design
Survey Instruments
American Community Survey
AtlasPlus
Issues of Validity
Operationalization of Key Terms
Dependent Variable
Independent Variables
Data Analysis
Data Screening
Univariate Statistics and Bivariate Analysis
Multiple Regression Analysis
Tests of Assumptions of Multiple Regression
Results
Sociodemographic and Structural, and Intermediary Determinants
Bivariate Analysis
Assumptions
Correlations Among Predictor Variables
Multivariate Analyses
Assumption
Discussion and Conclusion
References
Part VII: Race and Justice
Race, Ethnicity, and Perceived Everyday Discrimination in the United States
Introduction
Theoretical Consideration and Hypothesis
Everyday Discrimination as a New Form of Racism
Everyday Discrimination Scale
Hypothesis
Data and Methods
Data
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Control Variables
Limitations of the Data
Methods of Analysis
Results
Descriptive Analysis
Regression Analysis: Perceived Everyday Discrimination Index
Regression Analysis: Separate Indicators of Perceived Everyday Discrimination
Discussion and Conclusions
References
Civil Liberties in Uncivil Times: The Perilous Quest to Preserve American Freedoms During Its First Two Centuries
Introduction
The Espionage Act
World War II
The Japanese Internment Camps
The Press in World War II
McCarthyism and the Korean War
Vietnam
Grenada
The Persian Gulf War
Civil Liberties in Uncivil Times: Preserving Traditional American Freedoms After 9/11
Introduction
The USA Patriot Act of 2001
``Patriot II´´
Analyzing the Constitutional Questions
Immigration Policies and Pre-Trial Detentions
Deportations
Prisoners of War
Military Tribunals
International Tribunals
Conclusions
Part VIII: Social Psychology of Prejudice
``If You´re Brown, Stick Around; Black, Turn Back´´: ``Honorary Whiteness´´ Status and the New Anti-Black/Pro-White Supremacy ...
Introduction
Who Gets Invited to Honorary Whiteness: United States Variations
Challenges and Opportunities in the Present Historical Moment: Making Racialization Visible
Advancing Transdisciplinary Inquiry: Frantz Fanon as Inspiration and Invitation to Knowledge for Solidarity
Reflections on Lived Experiences of Racialization
Participatory Action Research with Immigrant Students: Developing Knowledge for Visionary Leadership Towards Inclusive Communi...
Critical Race Perspectives on Immigrant Racialization in the U.S.: Centering Decolonization, Cultural Humility, Cultural Wealt...
Steps Towards Anti-Racist Immigrant Education: Knowledge of Histories Continuously Expressed in the Present Moment
Refusing Invitations to Racist Complicities Through ``Honorary Whiteness´´: Counter-Invitations from Afro-Diasporic/Indigenous...
Racialized Politics Neocolonialism and the ``Shifting Color Line´´: Recognizing and Challenging Structures Perpetuating Econom...
Racialization Through Linguistic Difference and Cultivating Language Rights
Another Way Forward: Creating Communities of Convivencia
References
``Snitches Get Stitches´´: Why Most Bullied Young People Don´t Disclose Incidents of Bullying and Harassment
Bullying Prevalence
Cultural Differences
Age Differences
Gender Differences
Measurement Differences
Consequences of Being Bullied
Current Advice to Students Who Have Been Bullied
Do Children Take This Advice?
Possible Reasons for Bullied Children Not to Tell an Adult
Does the Definition of What Behaviours Are Bullying Lead to Students Not Telling?
Intention
Repetition
Imbalance of Power
Children´s Definitions of Bullying
Shame Associated with Being Bullied as a Reason for Not Telling an Adult
Conflicting Messages of Don´t Be a Tattle-Tale or a Dobber or a Snitch and Telling an Adult
Bullied Children Are Afraid of Revenge So Don´t Tell an Adult
Victimised Children Don´t Want to Worry their Parents or Are Afraid of Their Reactions
Bullied Students Don´t Trust Teachers
Bullied Students Trust Their Peers More
Therefore, How Can We Make this Advice Work?
References
Is There Anything New in Antisemitism? Settler Colonialism
Introduction
Antisemitism: How Do You Know
Settler Colonialism
The Contextual Semantics of Settler Colonialism: Apartheid, Ethnic Cleansing, Genocide, and Intersectionality
Settlers in the West Bank
Conclusion
References
Muslims, Populism, and Scapegoat Theory
Introduction
Demagogy and Scapegoats
Disentangling Islamophobia, Islamism, and Islam
Islamophobia (I)
Islamism
Boko Haram
Islamophobia (II)
The Great East-to-West Diffusion
Islam and the Great East-to-West Diffusion
Conclusion
Islam and Race
References
Part IX: Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
Continental Africa or Europeans? Confronting the Paradox of ``Afronegativity´´ and ``XenoRacism´´ in Nigeria-South Africa Rela...
Introduction
Citizen Diplomacy as an Analytical Construct
Nigeria-South Africa Bilateral Relations: From Apartheid to Democracy
Trends and Triggers of Xenophobia in South Africa
Citizen Diplomacy and Governments´ Response(s)
Conclusion
References
More Than Just Talking Anti-Oppression: The Use of Racial Dialogue to Combat Intolerance in the Classroom
Introduction
Significance of the Work
Methods
Findings
Active and Passive Faculty Participation
Course Relevance
Altered Academic Experience and Self-actualization
Deference for Faculty
Suggestions for Pedagogical Practice
Faculty Reflection #1
Faculty Reflection #2
Conclusion
References
Bullying Perpetration and Perceptions of Familial Acceptance of Aggression Among Young People at University
Introduction
Method
Participants
Measures
Procedure
Data Analysis
Results
Description of the Bullying Sample
Family Composition and Bullying Perpetration
Sibling Bullying and Bullying Perpetration
Parental Intolerance of Aggression and Anger Arousal on Bully Perpetration
Discussion
University Students and Perceived Parental Acceptance of Aggression
Family Composition and Perpetrating Bullying
University Students and Sibling Bullying
Implications
Limitations
Future Directions
References
Part X: The Grand Dichotomy Reconsidered
Democracy in American Public Discourse: Power and the Crisis of Leadership, Race, and Division (or Unity)
Introduction
Establishing the Context
Challenges, Metanarrative, and the ``Other´´
Race and Democracy
Division (or Unity)
Political Divisiveness
Origins of Covid-19 and the Politicization of Public Health
Current and Future Challenges
Crisis in Leadership
Democracy as Power or the Power of Democracy?
References
Race: The Irreconcilable Conflict Threatening America´s Future (and Indeed the World)
Introduction
The Premises of White Power
Ideology Meets the Night Stick
The Southern Border
Ideology Meets the Checkbook
Ideology Meets Politics
January 6
Manic Pixie Dream Girl Goes Missing
White People Get Richer
Climate Change
Who Lost China
Conclusions
References
Race, Class, and Populism: Global Perspectives
Introduction
Africa: South Africa and Xenophobia
Asia: India and the Demagogy of Narendra Modi
Europe: The U.K. and the Demagogy of Boris Johnson
Brexit
Far East: The Philippines and the Demagogy of Rodrigo Duterte
The Drug War
Corruption
Conclusion
References