Handbook of Practical Second Language Teaching and Learning

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of contributors
Part I: Learning contexts and language teaching
Chapter 1: The changing landscape of English language teaching and learning
Introduction
What is education for?
Forces for change
Competency-based education
The centrality of language to 21 st century education
A seismic shift in the language teaching landscape
The future of the profession
Priority 1: Strengthen the status and visibility of the profession
Priority 2: Redesign English language education programs to foster global engagement
Priority 3: Mobilize leaders to confront and embrace the challenges and complexities of English language education
Priority 4: Expand capacity for inclusive and comprehensive research
Priority 5: Cultivate a culture of innovation that is responsive to global trends
Is language teaching a profession?
Advanced education and training
Standards of practice and certification
An agreed theoretical and empirical base
Advocacy
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Bibliography
Chapter 2: Second Language Literacy: Kindergarten to Grade 12
Introduction
Defining Literacy
Second Language Defined
First Languages
Second Languages
Second Language Literacy
Chinese: Second Language Literacy
Spanish: Second Language Literacy
English: Second Language Literacy
India: Second Language Literacy
Africa: Second Language Literacy
Europe: Second Language Literacy
Programing Code: Second Language Literacy
Multiliteracies: Second Language Literacy
Second Language Literacy Instruction
Suggestions for L2L Instruction
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Teaching L2 Academic Language in K-12: A Contextual and Developmental Perspective
Definitions and Relevance for Instruction
Conceptual Framework
Instruction: Content and Practice
Curricular Content
Language and Literacy Content
Practice
Instructional Practices that Address Attitude toward Minoritized Students and their Languages
Use and Exploration of Students’ Native Language
Exploration of Contextual Factors
Explicit and Gradual Instruction of New Aspects of Language and Literacy: SFL Genre Pedagogy Units of Writing
Critical View of School Language and Curricular Choices
Conclusion
References
Children’s Books Used to Extract Language Examples
Chapter 4: English for Academic Purposes
Important Traditions and Developments in EAP
English for General or Specific Academic Purposes
Needs Analysis
Register and Genre Analysis
Exploratory, Awareness-Raising Pedagogy
Academic Literacies and Critical EAP
Curriculum and Materials Development
Transfer of Learning
Current Controversies in EAP
Assimilationist and Pragmatic Ideologies of EAP
Plurality of Norms in EAP
Writing for Publication
Multimodality and New Genres
Future Directions of EAP
References
Chapter 5: English for Specific Purposes: Classroom Needs Analysis
Purpose
Important Developments in NA
How Does NA Fit into L2 Teaching?
Is Classroom NA a New Idea?
Why You Should Do NA in Your Classroom
Preliminary Considerations in Classroom NA
Deciding What NA Tools to Use
Deciding What Sources of NA Information to Use
Student Involvement
Teacher Reflection
Other Sources of NA Information
Interactions Between Sources of Information
Deciding What NA Information to Examine
Steps to Consider Taking in Your NA
Step 1: Keeping Up with the Literature
Step 2: Starting with Class Discussions and Interviews
Step 3: Integrating NA into the Class Schedule
Step 4: Using Questionnaires to Find Out How Widely Student Views Are Held
Step 5: Analyzing NA Information
Analyzing Your Qualitative Information
Analyzing Your Quantitative Information
Looking at the Whole Picture
Conclusion
Appendix A: Additional Example Items on Why Students Are Studying English
Appendix B: Additional Example Items for Classroom Activities
Appendix C: Additional Topics for Discussions, Interviews, and Questionnaires
Notes
References
Chapter 6: Teaching English to young learners
Introduction
Technology use with YLs
Challenges and implications for practice
Young learner pedagogy
Songs
Stories
Drama
Combining activities
Challenges and implications
Languages in the YL classroom
YLs’ characteristics and classroom language use
Implications for practice
Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: English as a lingua franca
Introduction
ELF in action
Strategies adopted by ELF users
Listener strategies
Lexical anticipation
Lexical repetition
Lexical suggestion
Lexical correction
The ‘Let it Pass’ strategy
The ‘Don’t Give Up’ strategy
The Request Repetition strategy
The Participant Paraphrase strategy
Speaker strategies
The Speaker Paraphrase strategy
The Spelling out the Word strategy
Make the Topic Explicit strategy
An ELF-approach to the teaching and learning of English. What does this mean?
If an ELF-approach is so good, why don’t more teachers adopt it?
Conclusion
Notes
References
Part II: Curriculum and instruction
Chapter 8: Curriculum in language teaching
Introduction
Dimension 1: Curriculum planning
Needs assessment
Context analysis
Guiding principles
Determining the goals of the curriculum
Developing the syllabus
Choosing or developing materials
Assessment and evaluation
Dimension 2: Curriculum enactment
Dimension 3: Curriculum evaluation
Conclusion and future directions
Shift to content-based curriculum
Preparing teachers to become curriculum thinkers
Note
References
Chapter 9: Materials Development for Language Learning: Ways of Connecting Practice and Theory in Coursebook Development and Use
Introduction
Second Language Acquisition Research (SLA) and Materials Development
SLA Research Relevant to Materials Development
Suggested Applications of SLA Research to Materials Development
Principles for Application
Current Practice in Materials Development
Reasons for the Mismatch Between Practice and Theory
Ways of Connecting Practice and Theory
Connections When Developing Materials
Connections When Adapting Materials
Teacher Adaptations
Making Small Changes
Performing the Coursebook
Readiness Activities
Extension Activities
Personalising
Challenging Creativity
Future Directions
Likely Future Directions
Ideal Future Directions
References
Chapter 10: Content-Based Instruction: Innovations and Challenges
Key Developments in CBI
CBI Programs Illustrated
Mainstream Elementary Instruction for English Learners
Collaboration of English and Content Teachers in EMI Secondary STEM Instruction
Hybrid Adjunct Model for University Students
Theme-based and EMI Curriculum
Theme-based Course for U.S. Intensive English Program
Other Important Developments
Conclusions and Future Directions
Notes
References
Chapter 11: Corpus uses in language teaching
Introduction
Data-driven learning and corpora in the L2 classroom
Trends and issues
Effectiveness of using corpora in the L2 classroom
Hands-on and hands-off approaches
Corpora in the classroom with young L2 learners
Types of classes effectively integrating corpora
Challenges and solutions
Summary of current practices
Practical examples: MOOCs and short-term online courses for learners and classroom activities
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Computer Assisted Language Learning
Statement of Purpose
Traditions in CALL
Foundational Perspectives and Paradigms
Trends
Open Educational Resources (OERs)
Mobility
Digital Worlds and Rewilding Learning
Controversies
Privacy, Tracking and Student Rights
Current Trends and Emerging Contexts
Corpora, Big Data and Data-Driven Learning
AI and Automation
Robots, AI and Automation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Digital literacies and language learning
Introduction
Multimodality and heteroglossia
Connectivity and interactivity
Games and play
Mobility and materiality
Translanguaging and transliteracies
Posthumanism and platform capitalism
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Teaching Online: Design for Engagement
Introduction
Basic Definitions
Online Elements
Written Presentation
Video Presentation
Audio Presentation
Discussion
Assessment Elements
Online Formats
Web-based/Asynchronous
Video-based/Synchronous
Hybrid/Flexible
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
Learning Management Systems (LMSs)
Course Design
Student Engagement
Twelve Tips for Encouraging Online Engagement
Fostering Cooperation and Collaboration
Instructor Presence
Student Motivation and Autonomy in Virtual Spaces
Accessibility
Developing Your Creativity, Competency, and Connections
The Apprenticeship of Observation
Dictionaries, Translation, and Self-Plagiarism
Conclusion
References and Further Reading
Chapter 15: Professional Learning through Professional Development for Second Language Teachers
Research on Language Teacher Education and Professional Development
Perspectives on PD
Purposes of PD
A Framework for Professional Development
Applied Science Model
The Craft or Mentoring Model
Peer-to-Peer Coaching
Cooperative Development
Reflective Teaching Model
Teaching Journals
Practitioner Research
Professional Learning Communities
The Climate of a School, Program, or Institution
The Role of Administrators in PD
Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE) and Online PD
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Part III: Listening and speaking
Chapter 16: Teaching listening: Dichotomies, choices and practices
Purpose and focus
Listening within the field of language teaching and learning
Developments, trends and traditions
Current practices: a pragmatic, informed approach
One-way or two-way listening
Comprehension approach
Pre-, while- and post-listening
Focus on the speech signal
Strategy-focused models
Teaching materials for listening
Feedback and assessment
Future directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Second language listening
Introduction
Linguistic processing
Phonological processes
Segmental processes
Assimilation
Vowel reduction
Supra-segmental processes
Word recognition
Syntactic processing
Propositional models
Semantic processing
Knowledge activation
Comprehension building
Inferencing
Pragmatic processing
Situational framing
Inferring speaker intention
Providing a personal response
Weighing affective involvement
Formulating a response
Best instructional practices for developing L2 listening
References
Chapter 18: Teaching Speaking to Language Learners in the 21st Century
Introduction
Theoretical Concepts That Underpin Teaching Speaking
Comprehensible Input
Comprehensible Output
Speaking as Skill Acquisition
Sociocultural Theory
Form-focused Instruction
Approaches to Teaching Speaking
Pronunciation Instruction
Planning Lessons and Designing Curriculum for Teaching Speaking
Language Teacher Education
Linguistic Knowledge
Teacher Beliefs
Established Classroom Practices
Responding to Spoken Language
Interaction in the Classroom
Group Dynamics
Activities to Promote Speaking
Discussions
Brainstorming or Conferencing
Information Gap
Interviews
Story Retelling
Roleplaying
Future Directions/Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Teaching speaking in L2 contexts
Introduction
Speaking as a product and process
Speaking competence
The role of speaking in second language development
Approaches to teaching speaking
Speaking tasks
Conclusion and future directions
References
Chapter 20: Effective pronunciation teaching
What is effective L2 teaching practice?
Recommendations from the pronunciation literature
Reconciling theory and practice
Principle #1: Pronunciation instruction requires specialized knowledge, expertise, and commitment
Principle #2: Accent and intelligibility are not directly correlated
Principle #3: The guiding goal of pronunciation instruction is that of comfortable intelligibility, not accent eradication
Principle #4: The various aspects of pronunciation deserve differential attention in the classroom
Principle #5: Both segmental and suprasegmental issues are critical to L2 phonological acquisition
Principle #6: Perception and production are inextricably linked
Principle #7: Teaching pronunciation is fundamentally different from teaching other skill areas
Principle #8: Feedback is critical
Principle #9: Numerous factors play a role in our learners’ acquisition of pronunciation
Principle #10: Knowledge of the learner’s L1 is extremely helpful in teaching pronunciation but cannot predict all areas in which learners will have difficulty
Principle #11: Exposure to authentic language is critical
Principle #12: Learners benefit from multimodal learning
Future directions
References
Chapter 21: Pronunciation and technology
Introduction
Focus of this chapter
Pronunciation within the context of L2 teaching and learning
Technology related to language learners
Perception
Production
Teacher preparation
Feedback
Visual feedback
Visualization for segmental features
Visualization for suprasegmental features
Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)
Synthesized voices as feedback
Future directions
References
Part IV: Reading and writing
Chapter 22: Teaching and learning English spelling
Introduction
The nature of English spelling
History
Alphabetic spelling
Not all words are equally important
High frequency words
Academic Word List
Technical words
Low frequency words
Five strategies for English spelling
Phonological strategy
Morphological strategy
Etymological strategy
Analogical strategy
Visual strategy
Tips for teaching English spelling
Familiarity with the Roman alphabet and left-to-right spelling
Handwriting
Technology
Phonological awareness
Sequence for teaching spelling
Useful words
Word games
Extensive reading
Integrating spelling with vocabulary teaching
Testing spelling
Conclusion
Answers
References
Chapter 23: L2 Writing: Toward a Theory-Practice Praxis
Introductions
L2 Writing Research as Theory-Informed Endeavors
Evolving Theoretical Views on Writing
Product-oriented Writing
Process Writing
Genre as Theory and Pedagogy
Genre as Pedagogy
Centrality of Social Context
Culture and Rhetoric
Written Corrective Feedback
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Chapter 24: Feedback on L2 Student Writing: Current Trends and Future Directions
A Brief History of L2 Response Research
Written Teacher Feedback
Teacher–Student Writing Conferences
Peer Feedback
Error Correction or Written Corrective Feedback (WCF)
Technology and L2 Writing Feedback
Current Practices in Response to L2 Writing
Sources and Timing of Feedback
Feedback Priorities
Feedback Characteristics
Praise and Criticism
Designing Peer Feedback Tasks
Guidelines for Teacher–Student Writing Conferences
Following Up Feedback
Instructor Engagement in Feedback to Student Writers
Summary
Future Directions for Response to L2 Writing
Studying Teachers
Examining Student Engagement
Response and Technology
Concluding Thoughts
References
Chapter 25: Principles for Reading Instruction
Foundational Principles for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Principle #1: Ask Students to Read a Lot and Read Often
Principle #2: Have Students Read and Re-read for Well-defined Purposes
Principle #3: Incorporate Deliberate Practice into Reading Curricula
Principle #4: Promote Discussion Among Students About Text Comprehension
Principle #5: Build Student Motivation to Read
Reading-Skills Development Principles
Principle #6: Teach (Not Test) Main-Idea Comprehension
Principle #7: Make a Commitment to Vocabulary Teaching and Learning
Principle #8: Raise Students’ Discourse-Structure Awareness to Improve Reading Comprehension
Principle #9: Promote Reading Fluency for Improved Reading Comprehension
Principle #10: Train Students to Be Strategic Readers
Instructional-Design Principles
Principle #11: Structure Reading Lessons Around a Pre-reading, During-reading, and Post-reading Framework
Principle #12: Select and Adapt Texts to Support Students’ Comprehension Development
Principle #13: Address Students’ Digital-Literacy Skills
Principle #14: Connect Reading to Writing to Prepare Students for Academic Tasks
Principle #15: Assessment for Learning is Key for Students’ Reading Development
Conclusion
References
Chapter 26: Building a Convergent Model of the Interlanguage Reading System
Universals of L1 Reading
Universal Reading Principles
Acculturation
Phonology
Mapping
Word Recognition
Implications
Universal Processing Strategies
Holism
Analysis
Implications
Three Acquisition Models of L1 Reading
The Linguistic Infrastructure
WM Strategies
Implications
Neural Networks
Implicit or Statistical Learning
Implications
Codes in a Concordance
Codes
Concordance
Priming
Implications
Distinctive Features
Rhyme Awareness
Phonemic Awareness
Graphemic Awareness
Implications
Focus on Forms
Transfer: Estimating Interference and Facilitation
System Assimilation or Accommodation
Strategic Availability
Implications
Playing Scrabble
References
Chapter 27: Extensive reading
How does extensive reading fit the curriculum?
Key concepts in extensive reading
Review of current practices and innovations
So why is extensive reading not yet mainstream?
Conclusion
Note
References
Part V: Vocabulary and grammar
Chapter 28: Teaching and learning vocabulary
Providing a balance of learning opportunities through the four strands
Vocabulary learning through meaning-focused input
Extensive reading
Extensive listening
Vocabulary learning through meaning-focused output
The deliberate learning of vocabulary
Vocabulary learning through fluency development
Planning a vocabulary program
Knowing where learners are in their vocabulary growth
Autonomy and vocabulary learning
Principles of vocabulary learning and learning conditions
Activities for learning vocabulary
References
Chapter 29: Re-examining some conventional assumptions in vocabulary teaching: What can we learn from the research?
Introduction
Inferring meanings of new words from context is a useful strategy for vocabulary learning
Implications
It is helpful to present new words in lexical sets
Implications
It is important to teach prefixes and suffixes
Implications
Unknown vocabulary should be pre-taught before encountering a new reading or listening text
Implications
The use of the learners’ L1 should be avoided in vocabulary teaching
Implications
Vocabulary is best learned incidentally in the course of communicative texts and tasks
Implications
Conclusion
Further reading
References
Chapter 30: Taking a practical approach to academic vocabulary in second language teaching and learning
Introduction
Important developments in vocabulary in EAP
What do learners and teachers need to know about vocabulary in EAP?
Why is academic vocabulary important?
What can learners and teachers do to increase the knowledge and use of academic vocabulary in English?
Measuring vocabulary knowledge as a first step
Developing inferencing skills
Working with available word lists on academic vocabulary
Using resources for developing academic vocabulary knowledge: textbooks and dictionaries
Making use of interactive tools
Applying Nation’s (2007) Four Strands
Future directions
References
Chapter 31: Teaching and Learning Multiword Expressions
Introduction: Multiword Expressions of All Sorts
Why Multiword Expressions Are Difficult to Learn
Effective and Practical Teaching Techniques
Learning to Notice
Writing It Down to Remember
Dictogloss
Ineffective Teaching Techniques
A Note on Teaching and Learning Multiword Expressions
Selecting Multiword Expressions for Teaching
Phrasal Verbs
Teaching Speaking
Teaching Writing
A Final Note
References
Chapter 32: Teaching grammar for a purpose in academic writing
Grammar in writing debates
Grammar and information packaging
Phrasal complexity vs. clausal complexity
Other grammar constructions to consider
Connecting and focusing across sentences
Using sources in academic writing
Summary and future directions
References
Chapter 33: The Grammar Choices that Matter in Academic Writing
Introduction
The Functional Approach to Academic L2 Literacy
Teaching the Choices that Matter in Academic Writing
Is There a General Academic Register?
Analyzing the Language Needs of Academic Genres
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Part VI: Intercultural communication and pragmatics
Chapter 34: Principles of teaching intercultural communication in TESOL
Introduction
Intercultural communication and global TESOL
Principles of intercultural communication
Principles of TESOL practice for teaching IC
Sense-making : Meaning – Relevance
Recognition: Stable routine – Dynamic variation
Accessibility: Simplification – Complexity
Guidance: Models – Challenge
Multimodality: Verbal – Visual
Sociality: Collaboration – Autonomy
Engagement: Interaction – Reflection
Evaluation: Other-assessment – Self-assessment
Conclusions
References
Chapter 35: Teaching and learning pragmatics
Introduction
What to teach: Definitions of pragmatic competence
Knowledge of form-function-context mappings
Interactional ability
Learner agency
How to teach: Methods and materials
Teaching the knowledge of form-function-context mappings
Explicit and implicit teaching
Skill acquisition: Declarative and procedural knowledge
Teaching pragmatics in interaction
Role plays and simulations
Computer-mediated communication
Promoting learner agency in pragmatics instruction
Learner agency in making pragmatic choices in context
Learner agency in maximizing pragmatics-learning opportunities
Summary and future directions
Curriculum-based pragmatics instruction
Task-based language teaching applied to teaching pragmatics
References
Index