Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Section Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction
1 Shaping the Field of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
ODDE Terminology
The Structure and Content of the Handbook
Macrolevel: Theories and Systems
Section 1: History, Theory, and Research in ODDE (Section Editor: Junhong Xiao)
Section 2: Global Perspectives and Internationalization (Section Editor: Svenja Bedenlier)
Meso-level: Institutional Perspectives, Management, and Organization
Section 3: Organization, Leadership, and Change (Section Editor: Ross Paul)
Section 4: Infrastructure, Quality Assurance, and Support Systems (Section Editor: Tian Belawati)
Microlevel: Learning and Teaching
Section 5: Learners, Teachers, Media, and Technology (Section Editor: Vanessa Dennen)
Section 6: Design, Delivery, and Assessment (Section Editor: Richard West)
An Invitation to Knowledge Sharing and Future Research
References
Part II: History, Theory, and Research
2 Introduction to History, Theory, and Research in ODDE
Introduction
Relevance of ODDE History
Importance of ODDE Theories
Necessity of Rigorous Research
Structure of the Section
Conclusions and Implications for Theory, Practice, and Research
References
3 From Correspondence Education to Online Distance Education
Introduction
The Correspondence Tradition
Radio and Television: A Bridge Between Correspondence Study and the Open Universities
The ``Industrialized´´ Tradition and Open Universities
Digital Technology: From the Virtual Classroom Back to Independent Study
A Note on History of Theory and Scholarship
Conclusion: The New Must Be Informed by the Old - Lessons from History
References
4 Open Education as Social Movement? Between Evidence-Based Research and Activism
Introduction
Social Movement Theory
Open Education from the Perspective of SMT
Conflict and Protest in Open Education
Cultural Representation
Values and Collective Action
Influence of Social, Political, and Cultural Context
Discussion
Conclusions
References
5 History and Development of Instructional Design and Technology
Introduction
The Origins and Evolution of Instructional Technology
Hard and Soft Technologies
Visualizing the Curriculum: The Paradigm of a Concreteness Continuum
From Visual to Audiovisual Instruction: The Paradigm of Communication Improvement
Educational Radio
Instructional Film
The Audiovisual Instruction Era
Television: Educational and Instructional
Behaviorism and Programmed Instruction: The Paradigm of a Technology of Teaching
The Origins and Evolution of Instructional Design
Tributaries to Instructional Design
Industrial Training During Wartime, 1918-1945
Military Research and Development, 1941 Through the Early 1950s
Programmed Instruction and the Development Process, the Late 1950s
From Military Research to Pedagogical Principles, the 1960s
Societal Pressures Forge a Synthesis
Critiques and the ISD Concept Today
Conclusion
References
6 The Rise and Development of Digital Education
Introduction
Digital Developments
The Web
LMS
Blogs
Social Media
MOOCs
Conclusions
References
7 Artificial Intelligence in Education and Ethics
Introduction
The Early Days of AI in Education
Contemporary AI in Education
AI and Learner-Facing Tools
Are Learner-Facing Tools Effective and Being Used?
AI and Teacher-Facing Tools
AI and Administrator-Facing Tools
Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues Around Education in General
Ethical Issues of AI in Education
Learner-Facing Tools
Teacher-Facing Tools
Administrator-Facing Tools
Dealing with Ethical Issues in the Design, Implementation, and Deployment of AIEd Systems
Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
Implications for Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE)
Conclusion
References
8 Classic Theories of Distance Education
Introduction
Classic Theorists of Distance Education
Epistemological Constructs of Classical Distance Education Theories
Otto Peters´ Distance Education as an Industrialized Form of Education Theory
Börje Holmberg´s Guided Didactic Conversation Theory
Michael Moore´s Transactional Distance Theory
Operationalization of the Classical Distance Education Theories
A Background to the Emergence of Open and Distance Education Theorizing
Interpretations of Classical Distance Education Theories
Keegan´s Integration Theory of Teaching-Learning
Garrison´s Communication and Learner Control Theory
Verduin and Clark´s Theory of Dialogue: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Distance Education
Concluding Reflections
References
9 Newer Theories for Digital Learning Spaces
Introduction
What Is a Theory?
Traditional Learning Theories
Toward Newer Theories
Newer Theories for Digital Learning Spaces
What Is a Theory: Revised
References
10 Pedagogical Paradigms in Open and Distance Education
Introduction
Why Do Physical Technologies Not Seem to Matter for In-Person Learning?
Generation 0
The Problems that In-Person Learning Has to Solve
The Problems that Distance Learning Has to Solve
The Three Generations of Distance Learning Pedagogical Paradigms: Objectivist, Subjectivist, and Complexivist
Objectivism: A Paradigm of Teaching
Subjectivism: A Paradigm of Learning
Complexivism: A Paradigm of Knowledge
Blurred Lines and Overlaps
Emerging Paradigms
Data-Driven Pedagogy: A Theory-Free Paradigm
Hologogy: A Cultural Paradigm
Bricolagogy: A Theory-Agnostic Paradigm
Conclusions
References
11 Theories of Motivation and Empowerment in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
Motivated Learners: Empowering Attributes
Self-Efficacy
Achievement Goals
Intrinsic Motivation
Self-Regulation
Motivating Communities: Empowering Contexts
Experiencing Motivation-as-Lived: Empowering Experiences
Conclusion
References
12 Technology Acceptance and Adoption in Education
Introduction
Technology Acceptance Theories and Models in Educational Contexts
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
Emergence of TAM
Modifications and Extensions of TAM
Prevalence of TAM in Educational Technology Adoption
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
Emergence of UTAUT
UTAUT2 as an Extension of UTAUT
Major Findings in Educational Technology Acceptance Research
Major Research Themes and Findings
Educational Technologies Validated and Users Involved
Most Researched Predictors of Technology Acceptance
New Developments in Educational Technology Adoption
Integration of TAM
Integration of UTAUT
Conclusion and Further Research Directions
References
13 Research Trends in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
The 3 M-Framework of Research Areas in ODDE
Thematic Scope of Academic Journals in ODDE
Journal Cluster 1: Educational Technology, Learning, and Computer Science
Journal Cluster 2: Educational Technology from K-12 to Higher Education
Journal Cluster 3: Distance Education in the Context of Higher Education
Journal Cluster 4: Technology-Enhanced Learning in School Settings
Research Trends Emerging in Content Analysis and Systematic Reviews
Quantitative Content Analysis and Text-Mining
Citation and Journal Network Analysis
Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis Studies
Alternating Research Waves
The First Wave: Institutional Consolidation and Instructional Design
The Second Wave: Quality Assurance and Student Support
The Third Wave: Virtual Universities, Online Interaction, and Learning
The Fourth Wave: AI, Big Data, and Intelligent Support Systems
COVID-19 Pandemic: The Turning Point
Conclusions
Cross-References
Appendix
Appendix A: Number of Articles Published in 26 Journals Between 2007 and 2016
References
14 Big Science and Little Science in Open and Distance Digital Education
Introduction
Big Science, Big Data
Big Data Defined
How Big Is Big Data?
Data Deluge
Little Science, Little Data
Little Data Defined
How Small Is Small Data?
Data Saturation
In Consideration of Big and Little Science for ODDE
Conclusion
Cross-References
Appendix
References
Part III: Global Perspectives and Internationalization
15 Introduction to Global Perspectives and Internationalization in ODDE
Background
Global Perspectives on ODDE
Globalization and Internationalization Within ODDE
Structure of the Section
Conclusions and Implications for Theory, Practice, and Research
Theory
Revisiting Theory
Practice
Reconciliation of Stakeholder Perspectives
Questioning Educational and Technological Hegemony
Research
Interdisciplinarity
Comprehensive Data
Locally Bound Research
References
16 Assessing the Digital Transformation of Education Systems
Introduction
Education Systems
Digital Transformation
Education Digitization Index
Digital Transformation in Education Systems
Digital Assets and Infrastructure
Digital Use
Digital Labor
Digital Outcomes
Digital Transformation After the Pandemic
Conclusion and Recommendations for Future Research
References
17 The Impact of International Organizations on the Field of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
Current Challenges En Route to a Learning Society
A Review of the Shape of IO Activities and Their Significance for the Field of ODDE
Ideation Through Guidelines and Consultancy Work
Digital Infrastructure Projects
The African Virtual University
Atingi Digital Learning Platform
Multi-stakeholder Networks
UN-Based Networks and Coalitions
International Networks Endorsed by IOs
Conclusion: Suggestions for ODDE and IOs
References
18 Online Infrastructures for Open Educational Resources
Introduction
Typology of Online OER Infrastructures
OER Repositories
OpenCourseWare
MOOCs
Open Textbooks
Wikimedia Platforms
Global, Cross-Border, National, and Regional Infrastructures
Global Actors and Infrastructures
OER Repositories
OpenCourseWare
MOOCs
Open Textbooks
Wikimedia
National, Regional, and Institutional Actors and Infrastructures
Africa
Asia
Middle East
Europe
North America
South America
Oceania
Challenges and Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
19 Culture, Ethics of Care, Community, and Language in Online Learning Environments: Supporting Adult Educators in a Digital E...
Introduction
Concepts of Culture and Ethics in Online Learning Environments
Culture and Context
Cultural Inclusivity
Ethics in Online Learning Environments
Community
Social Presence
Identity
Ethics of Care in a Learning Community
Issues of Power
Silence
Privacy and Confidentiality
Accessibility
Language
Language, Translanguaging, and Linguistic Inclusivity in Online Learning Environments
Translanguaging and Communicating as Second-Language Speakers
Linguistic Inclusivity
Recommendations for Inclusive Online Course Design
Future Research and Directions
Concluding Reflections: Striving for Excellence in Students´ Online Learning Experience
References
20 Challenges and Opportunities for Open, Distance, and Digital Education in the Global South
Introduction
Definitions
Context
Examples of Practice
Insights from Research and Literature
Diversity of ODDE Models
Policy Support
Language
Quality Assurance
Assessment
Continuous Professional Development
Finance and Sustainability
Open Questions and Direction for Future Research
Implications for ODDE Practice
Conclusion: Challenges and Opportunities
Cross-References
References
21 Open, Distance, and Digital Non-formal Education in Developing Countries
Introduction
Characteristics and Benefits of NFE
Mechanism to Deliver NFE
Examples of NFE Through ODDE
Issues and Challenges for NFE Through ODDE
Strategies for Promoting Use of ODDE for NFE
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
22 The Borderless Market for Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
Market Expansion and Attention to Access
Access and Inequality Related to Digital Access
Reskilling and Upskilling the Workforce in a Growing Technology Economy
Quality Oversight and Regulatory
Emergent Issues and Future Research
Conclusion
References
23 Virtual Internationalization as a Concept for Campus-Based and Online and Distance Higher Education
Introduction
Definition
Literature on the Topic
Dimensions of VI
Means and Practices in VI
The Six Pillars of VI
Administrative Leadership, Structure, and Staffing
Curriculum, Co-curriculum, and Learning Outcomes
Faculty Policies and Practices
Physical Student Mobility
Collaboration and Partnerships
Online and Distance Education
Implications and Insights from the Concept of VI for the Higher Education Internationalization and ODE Discourses
Relevance for Research
Relevance for Primarily Campus-Based Institutions
Relevance for ODE Providers
Conclusion
References
24 International Students in Open, Distance, and Digital Higher Education
Introduction
Introducing Internationalization at a Distance
Problems with Defining ``International Students´´ in ODDE
Defining International Students According to Mobility
Defining International Students According to Visa Status
Defining International Students According to Geographic ``Otherness´´
Problematic Assumptions of Binary Definitions more Broadly
Defining ``International Students´´ in ODDE
Understanding International Students´ Experiences
Understanding International Distance Students´ Transition Experiences
Gaps and Challenges in Existing Knowledge
Conclusions and Suggestions
References
25 International Partnerships and Curriculum Design
Introduction
Educational Approaches and Concepts in International Partnerships
Virtual Mobility
Virtual Exchange (VE) and Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL)
Curriculum Design: The Backbone of International (Online) Programs and Partnerships
Curriculum Design on the Program Level: Common Models
Curriculum Design on the Course Level: Valuable Starting Points
Implications
Conclusion
References
26 Conversations on Indigenous Centric ODDE Design
Introduction
Framing the Landscape
Contextuality in Learning Design
Relationships, Authenticity, and Identity
The Conversation
Concluding Thoughts
References
27 Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE): An Equity View
Introduction
Postdigital Society and Education
Inequality in Society at Large
Datafication of Education
Changing Forms of Teaching and Learning Provision
Unbundling
Any Time, Any Space?
Digital Inequities
Interdependencies Between Dimensions and Their Influence on Equity in ODDE
Theorizing Digital Participation
Moving Forward: Foregrounding Digital Equity
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Organization, Leadership, and Change
28 Introduction to Organization, Leadership, and Change in ODDE
Introduction
The Organization of Section 4
The Impact of the Pandemic on ODDE
The Need for Change in Our Post-secondary Institutions
Lessons Learned from ODDE Experiences of the Past Five Decades
Accessibility
Marketing
Cost
Quality
Professional Development
Strategic Planning
Partnerships
Innovation
Implications for Government and Institutional Leadership
Where Do We Go from Here?
Cross-References
References
29 Running Distance Education at Scale
Introduction: Distance Education Diversifies
Why Conduct Distance Education at Scale?
Open Universities
Open Schools
Massive Open Online Courses
Institutional Design and Organization
Governance, Management and Administration
Leadership
Conclusion
References
30 Open Schools in Developing Countries
Introduction
The COVID-19 Pandemic Experience
Access to Virtual Schooling
Challenges of Online Pedagogy
The ODL-Based Schooling System in India
Inclusive ODL-Based Education and Flexible Schools: Developing Countries Potential Pathway
Threshold 1: Issues of Access
Threshold 2: Issues of Learning Support
Threshold 3: Issues of Systems
Conclusion
References
31 Leading in Changing Times
Introduction
Competing Images of the Future
Developing Multifocal Leadership
The DCU Story
Strategically Embedding Digital Learning
The NIDL as an Innovation Incubator
Shaping the Discourse
Leveraging Strategic Partnerships
Toward a Culture of Continuous Improvement
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
32 ODDE Strategic Positioning in the Post-COVID-19 Era
Introduction
Strategic Planning and Strategic Positioning
The Context: The Pandemic and Strategy Development in Higher Education
Strategy Development in Government
The Particular Demands for ODDE Institutions
Strategic Planning for ODDE in South Africa
University Education System in South Africa (SA)
The Special Role of Saide
COVID-19 in South Africa
Learning from the COVID Experience
Role of ODDE in the University Sector
The Iron Triangle
Open Learning Principles
Strategic Positioning for both ODDE and Traditional Institutions
Shaping the System Toward National Goals
Institutional Strategies
Summary: Lessons Learned for Better Strategy Development
References
33 Resilient Leadership in Time of Crisis in Distance Education Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa
Introduction
Futures Research Triangle
Weights of the Past
The Push of the Present
The Pull to the Future
Conclusion
References
34 ODDE and Debts
Introduction: Crises, Money, and the State
A Brief History of DE from a Costing Perspective
Traditional Distance Education
Online Distance Education
Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE)
From HCT1 to HCT2
Modern Money Theory (MMT)
MMT Basics
Sector Analysis and the Mechanics of Balance Sheets
Fiat Money
Normative Extensions
Covid, Conclusions, and Caveats
Cross-References
References
35 Institutional Partnerships and Collaborations in Online Learning
Introduction
Types of Partnerships and Collaborations
Propositional Collaborations
Cooperative
Mutual Service Alliances
Examples of Collaborations and Partnerships in Practice: Formation, Value, and Sustainability
Commonwealth of Learning: Regional Centres
The Partnership for Enhanced and Blended Learning
Leveraging Resources Through Partnerships Within University and College Systems
Factors That Promote Sustainability or Facilitate Strategic Pivots in Effective Collaborations or Partnerships
Conclusion
References
36 Marketing Online and Distance Learning
Introduction: Understanding Context
The Products and Services Have Changed Over Time: Posing New Marketing Challenges and Opportunities
The 1970s Positioning the New and Responding to Issues About Quality
1994 and the Arrival of Online Learning
2012 MOOCs and the Globalization of Learning
2020 and the Pivot to Online During the Pandemic
The Process of Marketing Online and Distance Learning Services
Element 1: Building the Brand Story: Differentiation
Element 2: Target Marketing and Market Segmentation
Element 3: Mining Niche Markets and Services
Element 4: Social Media and Digital Marketing
Element 5: Focus on Retention Not Just Attraction
Element 6: Using Analytics and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems to Track Return on Marketing Investment
Even After 50 Years, Marketing Still Has to Address Some Persistent Issues
``Face to Face is Best and Online and Distance are Not as Good´´
``The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Learner´´
``It Must Be Easier to Do Online, and Therefore It Should Be Cheaper: After All, There is Not as Much Instruction´´
``It Is Easy to Cheat in an Online Course: So Where Is the Quality?´´
Conclusion
References
37 Managing Innovation in Teaching in ODDE
What Is Meant by ``Innovation´´?
Why Is Innovation So Important in ODDE?
Innovation Is Part of the Lifeblood of ODDE
Innovation: Technology or Teaching?
Why Is Innovation So Difficult in ODDE?
Some Lessons About Innovation in ODDE
Literature Review
Five Destructive ``myths´´ About Innovation
Barriers to Innovation and Change
Strategies to Support Innovative Teaching
Think Holistically
Multiple Visions of Teaching and Learning
Strategic Goals for Teaching and Learning
An Annual Academic Planning Process That Includes Innovation in Teaching
Funding to Support Innovative Teaching
The OECD´s Solution
A Case Study
Is Innovation ``manageable´´?
Summary and Conclusion
References
38 Transforming Conventional Education through ODDE
Introduction
Terminology: Conventional Education, ODDE, and Transformation
Emergency Remote Teaching and ODDE
The Nature of Transformation
Why Transform?
Facing Up to the Challenges
Moving from a Supply-Centric Orientation
Transforming to and Within ODDE
Managing a Transformation
Conclusion
References
39 Academic Professional Development to Support Mixed Modalities
Introduction
Context
Literature
The Cases
Case 1: OU UK - Applaud
Setting the Stage
Challenge
Solution
Results
Case 2: RMIT
Setting the Stage
Challenge
Solution
Results
Conclusion
References
Part V: Infrastructure, Quality Assurance, and Support Systems
40 Introduction to Infrastructure, Quality Assurance, and Support Systems of ODDE
Introduction
The Organization of Section 5
Institutional Infrastructures in the Pre- and Post-Internet Era
Infrastructure for Course Materials Development and Student Support Services
Technological Infrastructure
Cross-Generational Infrastructures: Library Services and Quality Assurance
Library Service and Digital Library
Quality Assurance
The Sharing Paradigm: Open Educational Resources and Creative Commons
The Future: Metaverse-Based ODDE
Conclusion
References
41 Institutional Infrastructures for Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Dynamic Development of Institutional Infrastructures
Overview of the Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
Standard Institutional Infrastructure Model for ODDE
Evolving the Institutional Infrastructure Model for ODDE
Considerations for an Integrated Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
Infrastructure for Planning, Marketing, and Recruitment of Programs for ODDE
Institutional Infrastructure for Libraries and Educational ODDE Materials
Institutional Infrastructure to Support Research in ODDE
Institutional Infrastructure to Support Evolving ODDE Course Delivery
Institutional IT Infrastructure for ODDE
Developing Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
The Impact of Advancements in IT on the Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
Cloud Computing and Software as a Service
Bring Your Own Cloud
Artificial Intelligence, Adaptive learning, and Learning Analytics
Mobile Learning
The Impact of the User Experience on the Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
Impact of Covid-19 on Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
Infrastructure Supports for Emergent Areas
Concluding Remarks: Open Questions and Directions for ODDE Practice
References
42 Quality Assurance in Online, Open, and Distance Education
Introduction: Defining Quality and Quality Assurance in ODE
Judging and Assuring Quality in ODE
Accreditation and QA Frameworks at National, Regional, and International Levels
Institutional QA Systems
Conclusion: Future of QA in ODE Institutions
References
43 Quality Assurance at Mega Universities
Introduction
Quality Assurance at Universitas Terbuka (Indonesia Open University)
General Overview of Universitas Terbuka
The Nature and Importance of QA at UT
UT´s Internal Quality Assurance System
Lessons Learned
Quality Assurance at Mega University: Open University of China
General Overview of the Open University of China (OUC)
The Overview of QA at OUC
OUC´s QA Organizational Structure
The Quality Standards
The QA Procedure and Mechanism
The Internal QA System
The External QA System
Quality Monitoring from the Educational Administration
Quality Management from the ODL Association
Quality Evaluation from the Employers and Learners
Achievements and Challenges
Achievements
Challenges
Conclusion
References
44 Quality Assurance Systems for Digital Higher Education in Europe
Introduction
Quality in Digital Higher Education
Quality Assurance: Multi-Stakeholder Perspectives
Multilevel Approach
Learning Outcomes and Processes
Quality Criteria and Benchmarking
Quality and Maturity
Quality Assurance Systems in Distance Teaching Universities in Europe
E-xcellence: Quality Benchmarking for Blended and Online Education
A Manual
A Benchmarking Instrument
Internal Quality Assurance Leading to the E-xcellence Associate in Quality Label
The SEQUENT Handbook for Quality in E-Learning Procedures
ENQA Considerations for QA of E-Learning Provision
Peer Learning Activity on Quality Assurance in Online Education
The European Maturity Model for Blended Education (EMBED)
ICDE Quality Models in Online and Open Education Around the Globe: State of the Art and Recommendations (2015)
Challenges and Directions for the Future
University-Level Developments
Post-corona Pedagogies in Degree Education
Rethinking and Upscaling Continuing Education and Professional Development
MOOCs and MOOC-Based Microcredentials
Policy Developments
The Digital Education Action Plan (DEAP)
The European Education Area
The European Universities Initiatives (EUIs)
Conclusions
More Complexity in Digital Higher Education
Quality Assurance in Digital Education
Quality Instruments
Challenges
Degree Education
Continuing Education
Collaborations and Mobility that Transcend the Individual University
National Governments and Universities: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes
References
45 Program and Course Evaluation in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
The QA Frameworks for ODDE: The Domains That Matter
Course Development
Educational Technology
Program and Course Evaluation
Program and Course Evaluation in ODDE: Perspectives and Practices
The Openness Attribute
The Mode of Instructional Delivery
The ICT Integration
Recommendations for ODDE Program and Course Evaluation
Innovating on the Program and Course Evaluation: The Role of Technology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
46 Quality Assurance of Open Educational Resources
Introduction
An International Perspective on Quality Assurance Systems for OER
National and Regional Guidelines and Actors
Institutional Guidelines and Actors
Faculty Perceptions About OER Quality Assurance for Teaching and Learning
Toward a Quality Model and an Assessment Instrument for OER
OER Quality Model
The Instrument for Quality Assurance of OER (IQOER)
Implementing a Process of Quality Assurance for OER
Aim of Quality Assessment
Time of Quality Assessment
Raters
Level of Interaction
OER and OEP
Quality Standards and Quality Culture
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
47 Accreditation and Recognition of Prior Learning in Higher Education
Introduction
The Recognition of Prior Learning
RPL: What It Is, What It Is Not
The Philosophy and Practice of RPL
RPL Benefits Learners
Institutional Infrastructure and Process for RPL
New Patterns of Accreditation of Students´ Learning
Micro-credentialling in Higher Education
RPL and Assessment in the Larger Picture: Issues of Equity, Access, and Inclusion
RPL and Social Justice
Future Potential and Challenges for RPL
Final Words
References
48 Digital Information and Library Services in ODDE
Introduction
Background of the Digital Library Reference Model
Composition of the Digital Library System
User
Content
Policies
Functionality
Architecture
Quality
Other Actors in the Digital Library Universe
Initial Framework for Developing Digital Libraries for ODDE
Strategic Planning and Policy Development
Digital Collections and Information Services
Technological Infrastructure and Skills Development
The Collaborative Model for Implementing Digital Libraries in ODDE
Enhancing Seamless Information Access in ODDE Through Inter-library Cooperation
Embedded Library Services as an Anchor of Collaboration
A Framework for the Collaborative Digital Library Model in ODDE
Conclusion
References
49 Evolving Learner Support Systems
Introduction
Learner Support Variables and Frameworks
Support Variables
Support Frameworks
Technology and Learner Support
Management of Learner Support Services
Issues, Challenges, and Suggestions
Independence Versus Interaction
Culture and Learner Support
Gender and Learner Support
Disability and Learner Support
Technology-Enabled Learner Support
Ethics of Learner Support
Quality and Parity of Esteem
Research
Conclusion
References
50 Administrative Support System
Introduction
Applying a Holistic Approach to Institutional Change
Aligning Administrative Support with a New Learning Ecosystem
Policies
Pedagogical Approach
Learner Support
Technological Infrastructure
Learning Resources
Assessment and Certification
Communication
Quality Assurance
From Digital Transition to Digital Transformation
Role-Changing: Redesigning Professional Development
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
51 Supporting Learners with Special Needs in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
Learners with Special Needs in ODDE
Challenges Encountered by Learners with Special Needs in ODDE
Learner Support Systems in ODDE
Supporting Learners with Special Needs in ODDE
Accessibility
Universal Design for Learning
Assistive Technologies
Accommodations or Adaptations Offered by ODDE Institutions
Further Remarks: Equity, Equality, and Justice
Conclusion
References
Part VI: Learners, Teachers, Media, and Technology
52 Introduction to Learners, Teachers, Media, and Technology in ODDE
Introduction
A People-First Approach to ODDE
An Overview of Chapters
Synthesis Across Chapters
Conclusion
References
53 Learner Characteristics and Competencies
Introduction
Adoption of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Learning in the New Century
Technology Access, Socioeconomic Status, and Demographics
Implications for Open, Distance, and Digital Education Environments
Initial Access to Technology
Technology Maintenance
Access Location
Mobile Device Dependency
Lack of Supporting Tools
Competencies of the New Century
Competencies in Open, Distance, and Digital Education Environments
Information Literacy
Communication and Collaboration
Design and Development
Administration
Concluding Remarks
References
54 Motivation to Learn in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
Motivation and Its Outcomes in ODDE Environments
Motivation Definition and Framework for Interpretation
Motivation Theories Central to Understanding ODDE Experiences
Motivation in Open, Digital and Distance Education
Primary Education
Secondary School
Tertiary and Lifelong Education
Critical Insights from Researching Motivation in ODDE
General Insights
ODDE Has Matured
Context and Individual Differences
Specific to Primary Education
Specific to Secondary Education
Specific to Tertiary and Adult Education
Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
When Will Motivational Theory Be Stretched to Fit ODDE Experiences?
When Will Digital Education´s Affordances Really Drive Life-Long Learning?
When Will Gamification´s Potential Contributions Be Clarified?
Doing More of What We Know Works
Implications for ODDE Practice that Arise from this Research
Robust Motivational Theories for the Road Ahead
ODDE Motivation Research Design and Analysis Must Improve to Be Substantive
Stop Asking Whether and Start Asking for Whom and How
References
55 ODDE and Gender
Introduction
Gender Issues in Distance Education: Historical Context
The Situation of Women in Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
Women Working in ODL
Women Distance Students
Feminist Perspectives and ODL
Women´s/Gender Studies (WGS) and Distance Education
Feminist Pedagogy and New Horizons for Women
Issues of Equity and Empowerment
Gender Roles and the Social Division of Labor
A Woman´s Work Is Never Done
Making Time for Her Studies
Learning Environments
Home Study
Privatized Learning Environments
Taking Control of the Learning Environment
Access Equity
Factors Affecting Access to Education
Opening Educational Opportunities
Gendered Course Content and Choice of Subject
Feminist Perspectives on Women and Technology
Availability of ICTs in ODE
Acceptance of Technology
Factors Affecting Women´s Participation in E-Learning
Women Using Technology for Communication
Internet Communication and Empowerment
Closing Remarks
References
56 Media Usage Behaviors of Learners in ODDE
Introduction
Media Evolution in Open, Distance, and Digital Education: A Historical View
From Learning from Media to Learning with Media
Learners´ Media Usage Behaviors
Media Usage Typologies: Media in General
Media Usage Typologies: Learning-Related Usage Behaviors and Media Trends
Dimensions in Media Usage Typologies
Research in Learners´ Media Usage Behaviors
Future of Learners´ Media Usage
Future Directions of Research in Learners´ Media Usage
Future of Media Development
Conclusion
References
57 Synchronous Tools for Interaction and Collaboration
Introduction
Evolution of Synchronous Communication in Distance Education
Affordances and Constraints of Synchronous Communication
Overview of Synchronous Tools
Audio-based Tools: Telephone and Audio Teleconferencing
Text-based Tools: Chat and Messaging
Video-based Tools: Video and Web Conferencing
Other Synchronous and Semi-Synchronous Tools
Implications for Research and Practice
References
58 Asynchronous Tools for Interaction and Collaboration
Introduction
A Brief Review of Early and Current Research
Defining Interaction and Collaboration
Asynchronous Tools for Teaching and Learning
Background on Asynchronous Tools and Use of Technologies
Background on Asynchronous Tools and Use of Strategies
Instructional Design Strategies for Asynchronous Teaching and Learning
Two Issues Within ODDE Environments to Ponder
Summary and Conclusion
Suggestions for Future Research
Implications for Practice
References
59 Learning Analytics in Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE)
Introduction
Overview of LA and Its Relevance
What Is the Relevance of LA for ODDE?
Guiding Theories
Theoretical Influences
Selected Major Research and Discourses in LA
The Adoption and Institutionalization of LA
LA As Informing Learning Design and Pedagogy
Where Is the Evidence? Mapping the Impact of LA
Ethics and Privacy in LA
Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
Implications for ODDE Practice
References
60 The Rise of Multimodal Tutors in Education
Introduction
An Historical Perspective on Education Technologies
Outline of This Book Chapter
Main Findings
Research Study: Learning Pulse
Findings
Literature Study on Multimodal Data for Learning
Findings
Position Paper: The ``Big Five´´ Challenges
Findings
Technical Implementation: The Multimodal Learning Hub
Findings
Technical Implementation: The Visual Inspection Tool
Findings
Position Paper: The Multimodal Pipeline
Findings
Feasibility Study: Detecting CPR Mistakes
Findings
Research Study: Keep Me in The Loop
Findings
Limitations
Conclusion
References
61 Automated Essay Scoring Systems
Introduction
Synopsis of Automated Scoring Systems
Functions of Automated Scoring Systems
Overview of Automated Scoring Systems
Open Questions and Directions for Research
Implications for Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Cross-References
References
62 The Role of the Online Instructor
Introduction
Background and Context
Pedagogical Role
Managerial Role
Social Role
Technological Role
Ethical Dimension
Network Dimension
Conclusion
References
63 Developing Digital Literacy for Teaching and Learning
Introduction
What Is ``Digital Literacy´´?
Digital Literacy Frameworks in Education
General Focus (Learners)
Focus on Educators
Strategies to Foster Digital Literacy in Education
K-12 and Secondary Education
Higher Education
Vocational Education
Continuing Education
Lifelong Learning
Challenges and Future Research
Conclusion
References
64 Future Skills as New Currency for the World of Tomorrow
Future Skills: Guiding Principles of a New Educational Concept for Higher Education Institutions
Research Design
Future Skills for the World of Tomorrow
Future Skill Profiles of the NextSkills Study
The Future Skills Triple Helix Model
Changing Contexts of Life and Work
Shift 1: From Standardization to Self-organization
Shift 2: From Knowledge to Competence
Shift 3: From Hierarchical to Networked Organizations
Conclusion
References
65 Online Doctoral Education
Introduction
Review Methods
Findings and Discussions
What Are the Stated Reasons for the Development of Online Doctoral Education?
Growth in Online Higher Education
Growth in Professional Doctoral Education
Demands in the Professional Field
Internationalization of Education
Social Justice-Oriented Rationale
What Are the Stated Pedagogical Concerns About Online Doctoral Programs?
Flexibility and Structure
Isolation and Community
Technology Anxiety and Research Literacy
Diversity and Inequality
What Are the Stated Theoretical Approaches to Conceptualizing Online Doctoral Studies?
Constructivist Learning Theories
Community of Inquiry and Community of Practice
Transformative Learning Theory
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Design, Delivery, and Assessment
66 Introduction to Design, Delivery, and Assessment in ODDE
Introduction
Organization of Section 7
Overarching Themes
Originary Theory to Guide ODDE Design
The Need for Research to Expand Beyond Study of Individuals in Higher Education
ODDE Learning Can Be Effective
Standards to Guide ODDE Design
How Assessment Supports Learning
Designing the Future of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Cross-References
References
67 Blended Learning Research and Practice
Introduction
What Is Blended Learning?
What Are Common Models of Blended Learning?
What Is Happening with Blended Learning Internationally?
What Blended Learning Frameworks Are Being Used by Researchers?
What Are Some Important Areas of Research in Blended Learning?
Institutional Issues
Faculty Issues
Student Issues
Conclusion
References
68 Flipped Learning
Introduction
What Is Flipped Learning? The Definitions of Flipped Learning
The History of Flipped Learning Practice
Theories and Research Evidence Supporting Flipped Learning
Growth of Flipped Learning Research
Flipped Learning Benefits
Factors Affecting Flipped Learning Effectiveness
Remaining Challenges and Possible Solutions
Fully Online Flipped Learning, Bichronous Online Learning, and HyFlex Learning
Future of Flipped Learning Practices and Research
References
69 Digital Credential Evolution
Introduction
Definitions
What Research on Open Microcredentials Has Taught Us
How Do Open Microcredentials Affect Learning in the Microlevel?
Learner Perceptions on Open Microcredentials
Open Microcredentials and Student Motivation
Open Microcredentials and Student Learning
Open Microcredentials and Personalized Learning
Open Microcredentials and Self-regulated Learning
How Can Open Microcredentials Support Learning in the Mesolevel?
Microcredentials Can Communicate Pathways Towards End Goals
Microcredentials Can Communicate Their Value and Make Organizational Goals Visible
Microcredentials Can Widen Participation in Higher Education
Microcredentials Can Be Interwoven with Traditional Credentials
Microcredentials Can Assist Employers in Tracking/Providing Professional Learning
How Can Open Microcredentials Support Learning in the Macrolevel?
Connecting Formal and Informal Learning
Enhancing Lifelong and Community-Based Learning
Improving the Credibility of Credentialing
Open Microcredentials in Different Cultures
Conclusion
References
70 Designing Online Learning in Higher Education
Introduction
Importance of Design in Online Learning
A Brief Overview of Online Course Design Research in Higher Education
Standards and Rubrics for Online Course Design
Online Course Design Elements (OCDE)
Instructor Preparation and Support for Online Course Design
Role of Instructional Designers in Online Course Design
Recommendations for Instructors and Designers and Future Research
References
71 Using Social Media in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction: ODDE as an Emerging Field
Web Technologies: Collective Intelligence and the Global Brain
Social Media: Revisiting Its Definition and Concepts that Make It Popular
Educational Affordances and Limitations of Social Media
An Examination of Social Media in Terms of the Theoretical Underpinnings of ODDE
Reflections and Insights from Research on Social Media
Conclusion and Suggestions
Cross-References
Appendix
Appendix A: Information on research corpus and search queries adopted for the inclusion criteria
References
72 Serious Games and Game-Based Learning
Introduction
Definition and Characteristics of Serious Games and Game-Based Learning
Theoretical Foundations
Empirical Contributions
Design Features Influencing Motivation, Affect, and Learning Outcomes in Games
Conclusion
References
73 Designing Online Learning Environments to Support Problem-Based Learning
Introduction
The PBL Essentials
A Pedagogical Framework for Online PBL Design
Preparation and Planning
Design and Development
Implementation and Facilitation
Assessment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
74 Designing Online Learning for Children and Youth
Introduction
Online Courses and Design Models
The 4Es: Goals when Designing and Assessing Learning in Online Environments
Enable
Engage
Extend
Elevate
ACE: A Framework for Supporting Online Student Engagement
Implications
Need for Additional Learning Opportunities/Experience for Teachers
Teacher Education Programs
Conclusion
References
75 Student Engagement in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
Introduction
What Is Student Engagement?
Sociocultural Positioning of Student Engagement
The Mesosystem Level
The Microsystem Level
Indicators of Student Engagement in ODDE
Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
References
76 Dimensions of Assessment in Online and Open Education in Terms of Purpose, Function and Theory
Introduction
Assessment Purposes/Functions
Conformative, Deformative, and Transformative Assessment Functions
Prior Learning Assessment
Learning Theory
Differential Theories
Cognitive-Associationist Theories
Cognitive-Constructivist Theories
Situative/Sociocultural Theories
Conclusion
References
77 Designing Online Learning Communities
Introduction
The Roots of Online Learning
The Community of Inquiry Theoretical Framework
Community-Based Design and Delivery in Three Presences
CoI and Learning Assessment
Conclusion
References
78 Synergies Among the Pillars
Introduction
CSCL: An Overview
Effects of CSCL on Learning
Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
Implications for ODDE
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
79 Informal Learning in Digital Contexts
Introduction
Digital Contexts Are Different
The Darker Sides of Digital Technologies
Informal Learning in a Digital Context
Social Informal Learning
An Example: Reddit
The Power of the Collective
Self-Teaching Resources
An Example: Online Videos for Informal Learning
Supporting the Informal Learning Process
Supportive Physical Contexts
Sharing and Reflecting
Tracking Progress
Credentialing Informal Learning
Challenge Assessments
Storing and Sharing Credentials
Conclusion
References
80 Instructional Quality and Learning Design of Massive Open Online Courses
Introduction
History and Characteristics of MOOCs
Frameworks, Instruments, and Tools for MOOCs
Online Courses: Their Platforms and Current Practices
Standards and Norms for Online Learning, Courses, and MOOCs
Quality, Learning Design, and Outcomes of MOOCs
Benefits, Arguments, and Scenarios for Using MOOCs
Categories and Types of (Massive Open) Online Courses
Conclusion
References
Index
