Handbook of Natural Colorants

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
Series Preface
Preface
Part I Historical Development
Chapter 1 History of Natural Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean Civilization
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Ancient Mediterranean World
1.1.2 Dyes from Antiquity
1.1.3 Unveiling the Secrets of Ancient Dyes with Modern Science
1.2 Ancient Reds
1.2.1 Anthraquinone Reds
1.2.2 Redwoods
1.2.3 Flavylium/Anthocyanin Reds
1.2.3.1 Equilibria in solution
1.3 Ancient Blues
1.3.1 Indigo Blues
1.3.2 Anthocyanin Blues
1.4 Ancient Purples
1.4.1 Tyrian Purple: Real Purple from Sea Snails
1.4.2 Orchil Purples
1.4.3 Folium
1.5 Ancient Yellows
1.5.1 Flavonoid Yellows
1.5.2 Carotenoid Yellows
1.5.3 Chalcone and Aurone Yellows
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 2 Colors in Civilizations of the World and Natural Colorants: History under Tension
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Triumph of Mauveine: Synthetic Fulfillment of the Antique Purplemania
2.3 Blue: From Kingly Regional to Globally Democratic
2.4 Red and Yellow: From Micro to Macro Scales
2.5 What Is the Future for Natural Colorants in the Dawning Era of Renewable Resources?
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 3 History of Natural Dyes in North Africa_Egypt
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Natural Dyes in Pharaonic Textiles
3.3 Dyeing Techniques
3.4 Dye Sources
3.4.1 Woad
3.4.2 Indigo
3.4.3 Red
3.4.4 Yellow
3.4.5 Black
3.4.6 Brown
3.4.7 Green
3.4.8 Purple
3.5 Dyeing in Coptic Textiles
3.6 Wool-Dyed Fabric with Natural Dye
3.7 Dyes in Islamic Textiles
3.8 Mordants
References
Part II Natural Colorants in Different Regions of the World
Chapter 4 Sources for Natural Colorants in Europe
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Cultivation
4.2.1 Potential European Dye Plants Yesterday and Now
4.2.2 Modern Cultivation Methods—General Facts
4.2.3 Blue-Dye Plants
4.2.4 Red-Dye Plants
4.2.5 Yellow-Dye Plants
4.2.6 Brown-Dye Plants
4.2.7 Production of Dye Extracts
4.3 Natural Colorants from Agro-Food Residues
4.4 Natural Colorants from Forestry and Timber Industry
4.5 Relevant Examples for the Application
4.6 Conclusions, Discussion, and Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 5 Dyes in South America
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Annatto
5.3 Turmeric
5.4 Marigold
5.5 Cochineal and Carmine
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 6 Natural Dyes in Eastern Asia (Vietnam and Neighboring Countries)
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Annatto (Bixa orellana L., Family Bixaceae)
6.3 Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Family Theaceae)
6.4 Umbrella Tree (Terminalia catappa L., Family Combretaceae)
6.5 Mackloeur (Diospyros mollis L. Griff, Family Ebenaceae)
6.6 Indigo (Indigofera L., Family Fabaceae)
6.6.1 Indigofera tinctoria L.
6.6.2 Indigofera galegoides DC
6.6.3 Strobilanthes cusia (Baphicacanthus)
6.7 Henna (Kok Khan or Khao Youak in Laos) (Lawsonia spinosa L., Family Lythraceae)
6.8 Nacre (African Mahogany, Khaya senegalensis, Family Meliaceae)
6.9 Sappan Wood (Caesalpinia sappan L., Family Fabaceae)
6.10 Japanese Pagoda Tree Flowers (Sophora japonica L., Family Leguminosae)
6.11 Turmeric (Curcuma longa L., Family Zingiberaceae)
6.12 Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota L. or Achras zapota, Family Sapotaceae)
6.13 Betel (Piper betel L., Family Piperaceae)
6.14 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Family Myrtaceae)
6.15 Caesalpinia Yellow (Caesalpinia pulcherrima L., Family Fabaceae)
6.16 Brow-Tuber; Yam (Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour, Family Dioscoreaceae)
6.17 Others
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 7 Sources for Natural Colorants in China
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sophora japonica Yellow
7.3 Turmeric
7.4 Gardenia Yellow
7.5 Emodin
7.6 Baicalin
7.7 Berberine
7.8 Henna
7.9 Monascus Red
7.10 Madder
7.11 Sorghum Red
7.12 Mulberry Red
7.13 Shikonin
7.14 Indigo
7.15 Condensed Tannins
7.16 Tea Polyphenols
7.17 Gallnut
References
Chapter 8 Sources, Application, and Analysis of Natural Colorants: An Indian Perspective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Natural Dyes in India
8.2.1 History
8.2.2 Traditional Processes of Dyeing with Natural Dyes in Different Parts of India
8.2.3 Sources of Natural Dyes in India
8.2.4 Use of Some Natural Dyes in Traditional Textiles of India
8.3 Details of Some Dye Sources and Their Application in India
8.3.1 Turmeric
8.3.2 Pomegranate
8.3.3 Flame of Forest
8.3.4 Marigold
8.3.5 Safflower
8.3.6 Annatto
8.3.7 Madder
8.3.8 Indian Mulberry
8.3.9 Arjuna
8.3.10 Sappanwood
8.3.11 Eucalyptus
8.3.12 Catechu
8.3.13 Gallnut
8.3.14 Myrobolan
8.3.15 Lac
8.3.16 Indigo
References
Chapter 9 Natural Dye Gardens in North America
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Participants
9.3 Education
9.4 Motivation to Work with Natural Dye
9.5 Plant List—Cultivated Plants
9.6 Chemical Background of Most Relevant Plants
9.7 Plant List—Foraged Plants
9.8 Plants with Indigotin
9.9 Importance of the Fibershed Movement
9.10 Educational and Community Gardens
9.11 Mexico
9.12 Canada
9.13 Future Research
References
Notes
Part III Colorant Production and Properties
Chapter 10 Chlorophylls
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Chemical Structures and Physicochemical Properties
10.3 Chlorophylls as Colorants
10.4 New Trends in the Use of Chlorophylls as Colorants
10.5 Stability and Analysis
10.6 Toxicological and Safety Aspects
References
Chapter 11 Indigo—Production and Properties
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Agronomy
11.2.1 Isatis
11.2.1.1 Developmental Stages and Climate and Soil Crop Requirements
11.2.1.2 Rotation
11.2.1.3 Soil Tillage and Seed Sowing
11.2.1.4 Weeds, Pests, and Diseases
11.2.1.5 Fertilizers and Irrigation
11.2.1.6 Harvesting and Yields
11.2.1.7 Seed Production
11.2.1.8 Isatis indigotica Compared with Isatis tinctoria
11.2.2 Persicaria
11.2.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2.2 Developmental Stages
11.2.2.3 Sowing, Harvesting, and Yield
11.2.2.4 Weeds, Pests, and Diseases
11.2.2.5 Fertilizer and Irrigation Requirement
11.2.2.6 Seed Production
11.2.3 Indigofera
11.3 Methods of Determining Indigo
11.4 Precursors in the Plants
11.5 Direct Dyeing with Indican
11.6 Indigo Formation
11.7 Extraction Procedures
11.7.1 Traditional Process Using Crushed Leaf Material
11.7.1.1 Isatis
11.7.1.2 Persicaria
11.7.2 Steeping in Water
11.7.2.1 Indigofera
11.7.2.2 Isatis
11.7.2.3 Persicaria
11.8 Purity of Natural Indigo
11.8.1 Purification by Sublimation
11.8.2 Impurities in Natural Indigo
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 12 Anthocyanins: Revisiting Nature’s Glamorous Palette
12.1 Chemical Basis
12.1.1 Chemical Structures
12.1.2 Equilibria in Solution
12.1.3 Kinetics
12.1.4 Color and Color Stability
12.1.5 Anthocyanins as Antioxidants
12.2 Natural Sources and Applications for Anthocyanins
12.2.1 Plants Sources, Content, Influencing Parameters
12.2.2 Food Colorants
12.2.3 Other Uses
12.2.4 Examples of Commercial Products and Processing
References
APPENDIX 1
A1.1 Multi-Equilibria in Acidic and Basic Media
A1.2 Measuring the Equilibria Constants
Chapter 13 Natural Colorants—Quinoid, Naphthoquinoid, and Anthraquinoid Dyes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Benzoquinone Dyes
13.3 Diaryloylmethane Dyes
13.4 Naphthoquinone Dyes
13.4.1 Lawson (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, CI Natural Orange 6)
13.4.1.1 Properties and Use
13.4.1.2 Agricultural Aspects
13.4.2 Juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, CI Natural Brown 7)
13.5 Anthraquinone Dyes
13.5.1 Main Components Emodin and Chrysophanol—Rheum and Rumex Species
13.5.2 Main Components Alizarin and/or Pseudopurpurin/Purpurin
13.5.2.1 Plant Sources
13.5.2.2 Madder CI Natural Red 8
References
Chapter 14 Natural Colorants from Lichens and Mushrooms
14.1 Use of Lichen and Mushroom Colorants in History
14.2 Cultivation of Lichens and Mushrooms
14.3 Colorant Structures in Lichens and Mushrooms
14.3.1 Lichen Dyes: Orchils and Litmus
14.3.2 Yellowish, Brownish, and Reddish Colorants from Lichen
14.3.3 Blue Terphenylquinones from Mushrooms
14.3.4 Anthraquinones
14.3.4.1 Bloodred Webcap (Cortinarius sanguineus)
14.3.5 Other Colorants of Fungi
14.3.5.1 Yellows from Grevillines
14.3.5.2 Yellow and Orange Colors from Pulvinic Acid Derivatives
14.3.5.3 Brown from Badiones
14.4 Stability of Lichen and Mushroom Colorants
14.5 New Approaches to Lichen and Fungal Colorants
References
Chapter 15 Focus on Tannins
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Chemical Structure, Biosynthesis, and Degradation
15.3 Properties of Tannins
15.4 Chemical Activities of Tannins
15.5 Analysis of Tannins
15.5.1 Sample Preservation
15.5.2 Extraction and Purification
15.5.3 Quantification of Tannins
15.6 Use, Toxicology, and Safety Aspects of Tannins
References
Chapter 16 Carotenoid Dyes—Properties and Production
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Occurrence of Carotenoids
16.1.2 Chemistry of Carotenoids
16.1.3 Chemical Characteristics of Natural Carotenoids
16.2 Properties and Functions of Carotenoids
16.2.1 Carotenoids’ Role as Pro-vitamin A
16.2.2 Use of Carotenoids as Markers of Dietary Practices
16.2.3 Carotenoids as Antioxidants
16.2.4 Carotenoids in the Macular Region of the Retina
16.2.5 Carotenoids as Anticancer Agents
16.2.6 Carotenoids as Natural Colorants
16.3 General Procedure for Carotenoid Analysis
16.3.1 Sampling
16.3.2 Extraction
16.3.3 Saponification of Carotenoids
16.3.4 Chromatographic Separation
16.3.5 Chemical Tests
16.3.6 Detection and Identification of Carotenoids
16.3.7 Quantification of Carotenoids
16.4 Problems in Carotenoid Analysis
16.5 Factors Influencing Carotenoid Composition in Plant Sources
16.5.1 Stage of Maturity
16.5.2 Cultivar or Varietal Differences
16.5.3 Climatic or Geographic Effects
16.5.4 Post-Harvest Storage and Packing
16.5.5 Changes in Processing/Cooking
16.5.6 Effect of Agrochemicals
References
Chapter 17 Flavonoids as Natural Pigments
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Role of Localized Flavonoids in the Plant
17.3 General Flavonoid Chemical Structure
17.4 Biosynthesis of Flavonoids
17.5 Anthocyanins as Natural Colorants
17.5.1 Structure
17.5.2 Structural Transformation and pH
17.5.3 Temperature
17.5.4 Oxygen and Ascorbic Acid
17.5.5 Light
17.5.6 Enzymes and Sugars
17.5.7 Sulfur Dioxide
17.5.8 Co-Pigmentation and Metal Complexation
17.6 Other Flavonoids as Natural Colorants
17.6.1 Yellow Flavonoid Pigments
17.6.2 Tannins
17.6.3 Anthocyanin-Derived Pigments: Pyranoanthocyanins
17.7 Therapeutic Effects of Flavonoids in the Diet
17.8 The Use of Flavonoids as Food Colors in the US and EU
References
Chapter 18 Natural Colorants from Fungi
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Types of Fungi Colorants
18.3 Fungal Producer of Colorants
18.4 Bioprocess
18.4.1 Biosynthesis Pathway
18.4.2 Production and Extraction Process
18.5 Toxicity
18.6 Industrial Application of Fungi Colorants
18.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19 Natural Colorants from Cyanobacteria and Algae
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Phycobiliproteins from Cyanobacteria
19.2.1 Structural Characteristics of Phycobiliproteins
19.2.2 Food Grade Phycobiliproteins
19.2.3 Future Trends
19.3 Pigments from Microalgae
19.3.1 -Carotene from the Microalga Dunaliella, Salty but Effective!
19.3.1.1 β-Carotenefrom Microalgae
19.3.1.2 Dunaliella Species for Carotenoids
19.3.2 Why Carotenoids from Dunaliella?
19.3.2.1 Natural vs. Synthetic β-Carotene
19.3.2.2 Applications of β-Carotene
19.3.2.3 Advantages of Carotenoids Production from Dunaliella
19.3.2.4 Process for Production of β-Carotenefrom Dunaliella
19.3.2.5 Companies Producing Dunaliella
19.3.2.6 Marketed Products of β-Carotene
19.3.3 Haematococcus for Astaxanthin, the Red Gold Rush
19.3.3.1 Advantages of Astaxanthin over Other Carotenoids
19.3.3.2 Astaxanthin as Nutraceutical
19.3.3.3 Astaxanthin as Antioxidant
19.3.3.4 Astaxanthin for Health
19.3.3.5 Astaxanthin for Salmon and Trout Feeds
19.3.3.6 Astaxanthin for Humans
19.3.3.7 Production System for Haematococcus
19.3.3.8 Companies Producing Astaxanthin from Haematococcus
19.3.3.9 Astaxanthin-Containing Formulations
19.4 Natural Colorants from Macroalgae (e.g., Seaweeds)
19.4.1 Biodiversity of Seaweeds
19.4.2 Seasonal Variations and Environmental Threats
19.4.3 Major Classes of Seaweed Pigments
19.4.3.1 Chlorophylls
19.4.3.2 Carotenoids
19.4.3.3 Phycobiliproteins
19.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20 Biotechnological Production of Microbial Pigments: Recent Findings
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Microbial Pigments Market
20.3 Production Strategies
20.4 Novel Extraction Technologies for Pigments Recovery
20.5 Regulation and Biosynthesis of Microbial Pigments
20.6 Strain Engineering Strategies for Pigment Production
20.7 Trends in New Microbial Sources of Pigments
20.8 Microbial Pigments Applications
20.8.1 Solar Cells
20.8.2 Therapeutic Application
20.8.3 Other Applications
20.9 Regulations on Microbial Pigments Use
20.10 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 21 Analytical Methods for Characterization and Standardization of Natural Dyes and Pigments
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Chemical Analysis—Identification
21.3 Quantification by Sum Parameters
21.4 Applicatory Tests
21.5 Product Performance
References
Chapter 22 Wood—From Natural Color Patterns Toward Naturally Altered Color Impressions
22.1 The Color of Wood
22.1.1 Wood Chemical Composition
22.1.2 Wood Anatomical Appearance
22.1.3 Physical Properties of the Wood Surface
22.2 Coatings
22.3 Dyes
22.3.1 Impregnation
22.3.1.1 Technology
22.3.1.2 Color
22.3.1.3 Products
22.4 Color Modification
22.4.1 Drying
22.4.1.1 Basics
22.4.1.2 Technology
22.4.1.3 Color
22.4.2 Steaming
22.4.2.1 Basics
22.4.2.2 Technology
22.4.2.3 Color
22.4.3 Thermal Treatment
22.4.3.1 Technology
22.4.3.2 Color
22.4.4 Ammoniation
22.4.4.1 Basics
22.4.4.2 Color
22.4.5 Bleaching
22.4.5.1 Basics
22.4.5.2 Color
22.4.6 Enzymatic Treatment
22.4.6.1 Basics
22.4.6.2 Laccases
22.4.7 Radiation
22.4.7.1 Basics
22.4.7.2 Color
22.4.7.3 Technology
22.5 Outlook
References
Chapter 23 The Role of Mordants in Fixation of Natural Dyes
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Metal Salts
23.3 Biomordants
23.4 Substrate Pretreatments
23.5 No Mordant
References
Chapter 24 Textile Coloration with Natural Dyes and Pigments
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Reasons for Natural Coloration
24.3 The Dyestuff–Fiber Interaction
24.4 Design of a Dyeing Process
24.5 Transfer of a Dyeing Process into Technical Scale
24.6 Processes and Resources
24.7 Technical Requirements for a Natural Dyestuff
24.7.1 Gamut and Color Shade
24.7.2 Fastness Criteria
24.8 Handling of Natural Dyes in a Technical Dyehouse
24.9 Mordanting
24.10 Natural Dyes on an Industrial Scale
24.10.1 Dyeing Technology—Exhaust Process
24.10.2 Hank Dyeing of Woolen Yarn and Production of Woolen Caps
24.10.3 Dyeing of Cones in a Yarn Dyeing Machine
24.10.4 Dyeing of Cotton Fabric on a Jet Dyeing Machine
24.10.5 Fabric Dyeing on a Garment Dyeing Machine
24.10.6 Dyeing of Polyamide Tights in a Paddle Dyeing Machine
24.10.7 Dyeing Technology—Continuous Dyeing
24.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 25 Hair Coloration with Natural Dyes and Pigments
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Human Hair
25.3 General Requirements on Hair Dyeing Concepts
25.4 Chemical Principles of Dyestuff Binding
25.5 Relevant Natural Dyes for Hair Dyeing
25.5.1 Naphthoquinone Dyes—Henna and Walnut
25.5.1.1 Henna, CI (Color Index) Natural Orange 6
25.5.1.2 Juglon, CI Natural Brown 7
25.5.2 Indigo
25.5.3 Metal Complexes
25.5.4 Metal Reaction Dyes
25.5.5 Anthraquinoid Dyes
25.6 Specialties
25.7 Regulations
References
Chapter 26 Natural Colorants in the Mass Coloration of Plastics
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Representative Examples
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 27 Natural Colorants in Printing/Packaging
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Packaging Films
27.3 Film Coloration
27.4 Paper Dyeing
27.5 Paints
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 28 Technical Aspects and Requirements to Produce Natural Colorants—Processes and Product Standardization
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Sources of Plant Material—Product I
28.2.1 Organic Farming
28.2.2 Sustainable Farming
28.2.3 Native Species
28.2.4 Farming for Food or/and Natural Colorants
28.2.5 Residual Materials and By-Products
28.3 Processing to Dyestuff—Product II
28.4 Quality Control and Standardization of a Dye (Product II)
28.4.1 Anthocyanins
28.4.2 Flavonoids
28.4.3 Dye Lakes
28.5 Challenges for the Industrial Use of Natural Colorants
28.6 Dealing with Sustainability
28.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 29 Environmental and Economic Position of Natural Colorants—Energy and Resources Balances, Sustainability, Ecology, and Costs
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Dye Plant Production
29.3 Dye Extraction and Dyestuff Production
29.4 Transportation
29.5 Textile Dyeing
29.6 Commercial Aspects—Costs
29.6.1 Basic Requirements for the Industrial Use of Natural Colorants
29.6.1.1 Precondition 1: acceptable costs of natural colorants and dyeing processes
29.6.1.2 Precondition 2: feasible cost of process engineering
29.6.1.3 Precondition 3: compliance with requested colorfastness properties
29.6.1.4 Precondition 4: competitive cost of naturally dyed products
29.6.1.5 Precondition 5: security of natural colorant supply
29.6.2 Consumer Expectations
29.6.3 Market Research for Naturally Dyed Products
29.7 Production Costs of Natural Colorant Products
29.7.1 Cost Categories
29.7.2 Aspects Influencing Production Costs
29.8 Prices of Synthetic Dyes—How Much Are Textile Companies Prepared to Pay for Dyes?
29.9 Acceptable Production Costs through a Mixed Portfolio (Agricultural Primary Production and Residues from Other Production Processes)
29.10 Closed-Loop Economy: Toward a Zero-Emission and Zero-Waste Society
29.11 Considerations Concerning the Life Cycle
29.12 Conclusion: Aspects Influencing Market Development for Natural Colorants
References
Chapter 30 Aspects of Human Toxicology and Consumer Safety
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Basic Aspects of Xenobiotic-Induced Toxicity
30.3 Toxicological Aspects of Natural Colorants in Food and Medical Applications
30.3.1 Risk Assessment
30.3.2 Therapeutic Effects (= Risk)
30.4 Toxicological Aspects of Natural Colorants in Cosmetics
30.4.1 Risk Assessment
30.5 Toxicological Aspects of Natural Colorants in Textile Dyeing
30.5.1 Plant Extracts
30.5.2 Pretreatment Agents and Mordants
30.5.3 Wastewater and Antimicrobial Compounds
30.5.4 Dyed Products
30.6 Test Methods for Toxicity Screening
30.6.1 Extract Preparation
30.6.2 Cytotoxicity
30.6.3 Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity
30.6.4 Antimicrobial Activity
30.6.5 Metabolism and in vivo Animal Bioassays
Acknowledgement
References
Index
EULA