Handbook of Nanocelluloses: Classification, Properties, Fabrication, and Emerging Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Contributors
Part I: Fundamentals
1 Nanocelluloses: Sources, Types, Unique Properties, Market, and Regulations
1 Introduction
2 Sources and Structure of Cellulose
3 Types and Classification of Nanocelluloses
4 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
4.1 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFs)
4.2 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
5 Unique Properties of Nanocelluloses
5.1 Mechanical Strength
5.2 High Binding Capacity
5.3 Low Toxicity
5.4 Biocompatibility
5.5 Biodegradability
6 Global Market
7 International Regulations
8 Conclusion
References
2 Nanocelluloses Toxicological and Environmental Impacts
1 Introduction
1.1 In Vitro Studies
1.1.1 Cellular Uptake
1.1.2 Immunotoxicity
1.1.3 Cytotoxicity
1.1.4 Oxidative Stress
1.1.5 Genotoxicity
2 In Vivo Studies
2.1 Immunotoxicity
2.2 Cytotoxicity
3 Environmental Impacts
4 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
3 Nanocellulose Production from Different Sources and Their Self-Assembly in Composite Materials
1 Introduction
2 Nanocellulose from Native Sources
3 Nanocellulose from Microorganisms, Tunicates, and Algae
4 Production of Nanocellulose
5 Nanoscale Morphological Properties of Nanocellulose
6 Targeting Specific Applications by Properties
7 Electrostatically Stabilized Nanocellulose-Based Suspensions
8 Self-Assembled Nanocellulose in Composite Materials
9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
4 Physicochemical Characterization of Nanocellulose: Composite, Crystallinity, Morphology
1 Introduction
2 Composites
2.1 Nanocellulose and Biodegradable Polymers Composites
2.1.1 Nanocellulose and Synthetic Biodegradable Composites
Polycaprolactone
Poly (Butylene Succinate) (PBS)
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
Poly (Lactic) Acid (PLA)
Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
Poly (Lactic-co-glycolic) Acid (PLGA)
2.1.2 Nanocellulose and Natural Biodegradable Composites
Starch
Chitosan
Alginate
Protein
Gelatin
3 Crystallinity of Cellulose, Nanocellulose, and Composites
3.1 Cellulose Crystallinity
3.2 Nanocellulose Crystallinity
3.3 Cellulose Nanocomposites Crystallinity and Mechanical Properties
3.4 Cellulose Nanocrystal Liquid Crystal Phases
3.5 Crystallinity Measurements
4 Morphology and Physico-Chemical Properties of Nanocellulose and Composites
4.1 Morphology of Nanocellulose and Composites
4.2 Size, Composition, Physicochemical, and Reactivity Properties
4.2.1 Size
4.2.2 Elemental Analysis
4.2.3 Surface Charge
4.2.4 Surface Chemistry
5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
5 Nanocellulose
1 Introduction
2 General Overview on Nanocellulose
3 Cellulose Nanocrystals: Preparation and Characterization
4 Nanofibrillated Cellulose: Preparation and Characterization
5 Bacterial Nanocellulose: Preparation and Characterization
6 Conclusion
References
Part II: Nanofabrication
6 Cellulose Nanosystems from Synthesis to Applications
1 Introduction
2 Micro and Nanocelluloses
2.1 Microfibrillated Cellulose Fibers (MFCs)
2.2 Spherical Cellulose Nanoparticles (SCNs)
2.3 Nanocellulose Crystals (CNCs)
2.4 Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF)
2.5 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
3 Nanocellulose System
3.1 Cellulose Hydrogels
3.2 Cellulose Aerogels
3.3 Cellulose Polymer Nanocomposites
4 Synthesis of Nanocellulose
4.1 Mechanical Methods
4.2 Cellulose Pretreatment Method
4.3 Chemical Methods
4.4 Biological Methods
5 Applications of Nanocellulose
5.1 Biomedical Application
5.2 Pharmaceutical Application
5.3 Energy Production and Storage
5.4 Flexible Electronic Devices
5.5 Others
6 Future Directions
7 Conclusion
References
7 Synthesis, Characterizations, Functionalizations, and Biomedical Applications of Spherical Cellulose Nanoparticles
1 Introduction
2 Overview of Celluloses and Nanocellulose
2.1 Structure and Source of Celluloses
2.2 Nomenclature and Types of Nanocellulose
3 Spherical Cellulose Nanoparticles
4 Spherical Cellulose Nanoparticle Synthetic Methodology
4.1 Dispersion-Based Techniques
4.1.1 Emulsion-Solvent Evaporation
4.1.2 Nanoprecipitation
4.1.3 Microfluidic Technique
4.2 Polymer Self-Assembly
5 Characterization of Spherical Cellulose-Based Nanoparticles
6 Surface Functionalization Techniques
7 Biomedical Applications
8 Conclusion
References
8 Cellulose Nanocrystals
1 Introduction
2 Structure, Morphology, and Properties of Cellulose Nanocrystals
2.1 Structure and Morphology of CNCs
2.1.1 Effect of Sources and Processing Techniques on Structure and Morphology of CNCs
2.1.2 Effect of Hydrolysis Time on Structure and Morphology of CNCs
2.1.3 Effect of Surface Functionalization on Structure and Morphology of CNCs
2.1.4 Various Morphologies of CNCs: Rods, Spheres, Network, and Core-Shell Structures
2.2 Properties of Cellulose Nanocrystals
3 Preparation of Cellulose Nanocrystals
3.1 Preparation of Cellulose Nanocrystals
3.1.1 Chemical Treatment: Acid Hydrolysis of CNCs
3.1.2 Physical Processes: Ultrasonication Synthesis of CNCs
3.1.3 Enzymatic Synthesis of CNCs
4 Functionalization Techniques
4.1 Extraction-Dependent Functionalization
4.2 Functionalization by Physical Adsorption
4.3 Functionalization by Chemical Modification
5 Physicochemical Characterization
6 Applications
7 Conclusions
References
9 Cellulose Nanofibers
1 Introduction
2 Sources of Cellulose
3 Different Techniques for CNF Synthesis
3.1 Processes for CNF Extraction from Plant Resources
3.2 Alkali and Acid-Chlorite Pretreatment of Cellulose Extraction
3.3 Micro- and Nanofibrillation of Cellulose
3.4 Acid Hydrolysis Synthesis
3.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
3.6 Electrospinning of Cellulose Nanofibers
3.7 Bacterial Synthesis of Cellulose Nanofibers
4 Unique Properties of CNF
4.1 Optical Transparency
4.2 Barrier Properties
4.3 Mechanical Properties
4.4 Thermal Features
4.5 Electrical Properties
4.6 Biocompatibility
4.7 Biodegradability
5 Emerging Applications
5.1 CNFs as Reinforcing Materials
5.2 Nanopapers
5.3 Energy Storage, Battery Function, and Flexible Electronic Devices
5.4 Filtration
5.5 Medical, Healthcare, and Cosmetic Applications
6 Conclusion
References
10 Electrospinning of Cellulose Nanofibers for Advanced Applications
1 Introduction
2 Electrospinning Setup
3 Electrospinning Parameters
4 Cellulose Electrospinning
4.1 One-Step Methods
4.2 Two-Step Methods
5 Electrospinning of Cellulose Blends
6 Cellulose Composite Electrospinning
7 Applications of Electrospun Cellulose Nanofibers
7.1 Tissue Engineering
7.2 Drug Delivery Systems
7.3 Food Industry
7.4 Textile
7.5 Separation Process
7.5.1 Membranes
7.5.2 Adsorbent
7.6 Others
8 Future Directions
9 Conclusion
References
11 Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers
1 Introduction
2 Structure and Unique Properties
3 Biosynthesis Mechanism
3.1 Factors Affecting the BC Biosynthesis Process
3.2 Synthetic Pathway
4 Surface Functionalization
5 Biomedical Applications
5.1 Wound Healing
5.2 Biomedical Scaffolds
5.3 Drug Delivery
5.4 Lenses
6 Environmental Protection and Improvement
6.1 Air Filtration
6.2 Heavy Metal and Dye Wastewater Reduction
6.2.1 Organic Pollutant Removal From Wastewater
6.3 Disinfection of Wastewater
6.4 Water Desalination
7 Energy Applications
8 Packing Applications
9 Future Directions
10 Conclusion
References
12 Emerging Application of Nanocelluloses for Microneedle Devices
1 Introduction
1.1 Insight to Categories and Characteristics of Nanocellulose
2 Preparation of Nanocellulose
2.1 Conversion of Cellulose to Nanocellulose
2.2 Nanocellulose Properties
2.3 Production of Nanocellulose
2.4 Pretreatment Techniques
2.4.1 Alkaline Pretreatment
2.4.2 Bleaching Pretreatment
2.5 Extraction Techniques
2.5.1 Chemical Techniques of Nanocellulose Production
2.5.2 Biological Techniques
2.5.3 Mechanical Techniques
3 Emergence of Nanocellulose for Microneedle (MN) Fabrication
3.1 Microneedle Device and their Categories
3.2 Fabrication Technologies and Characterization of Microneedle
3.3 Application of Microneedle
3.4 Advantage of Microneedle
3.5 Limitation of Microneedle
4 Nanocellulose for Microneedle Fabrication
4.1 Effect of Nanocellulose Combination on Microneedle Fabrication
4.2 Limitation of Nano Cellulose Combination on Microneedle Fabrication
5 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
Part III: Processing
13 Nanocellulose for Antibacterial, Anti-biofouling Applications: To Antiviral Development in the Future
1 Introduction
2 The Classification of Nanocellulose, Structures, and Properties
3 Biofouling and Microorganisms
4 Application Cases from the Viewpoint of Fouling
4.1 Membranes
4.2 Medical Application
5 Antiviral Characteristics: Future Problems
6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
14 Nanoparticle Decoration of Nanocellulose for Improved Performance
1 Introduction
2 Nanoparticles
2.1 Organic Nanoparticles
2.1.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles
2.1.2 Liposomes Nanoparticles
2.2 Inorganic Nanoparticles
2.2.1 Metal-Based Nanoparticles
2.2.2 Metal Oxides-Based Nanoparticles
2.2.3 Ceramic Nanoparticles
2.3 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
3 Nanocellulose for Flexible Energy and Electronic Device
4 Nanocellulose for Wound Healing Applications
5 3-D Bio-Printed Nanocellulose for Tissue Engineering
6 Nanocellulose for Food Packaging
7 Nanocellulose for Water Treatment
8 Conclusion
References
15 Nanocellulose as Reinforcement Materials for Polymer Matrix Composites
1 Introduction
2 Nanocellulose: Accessibility and its Characteristics
2.1 Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC)
2.1.1 Potential Sources of Cellulose Nanocrystals
2.1.2 Methods Applied for CNC Preparation
Mechanical Process
Chemical Process
Biological Source
Combined Method
2.1.3 Properties of Cellulose Nanocrystals
2.1.4 Applications of CNC
2.2 Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF)
2.3 Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers (BCs)
2.3.1 Methods of BC Nanofication
2.4 Cellulose Nanogels (CNGs)
2.5 Spherical Cellulose Nanoparticles
3 Reinforcement of Interactions between Polymer and Nanocomposites
3.1 Tensile Properties of Nanocellulose
3.2 Different Kinds of Covalent Interaction for the Preparation of Polymers and Nanocomposites
3.2.1 Reaction between Hydroxyl Group and Epoxides
3.2.2 Reaction between Hydroxyl Group and Isocyanate
3.2.3 Reaction between Hydroxyl Group and Peptide
3.2.4 Reaction between Hydroxyl Group and Silane
4 Processing Methods of Polymer Nanocomposites
4.1 Hot-Melt Processing
4.2 Wet Processing
5 In Situ Polymerization
5.1 In Situ-Formed Bacterial Cellulose (BC) Nanocomposites
5.2 In Situ Polymerization of Monomer in the Presence of Bacterial Cellulose
5.3 In Situ Growth of Bacterial Cellulose in the Presence of a Polymer
5.4 In Situ Growth of Bacterial Cellulose in the Presence of a Nanofillers
5.5 In Situ-Formed Plant Cellulose (NC) Nanocomposites
6 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
16 Synthesis and Applications of Organic Framework-Based Cellulosic Nanocomposites
1 Introduction
2 Classification of Plant Nanocellulose and Their Structural Characteristics
3 Synthesis of Various Organic Framework Cellulosic Nanocomposites
3.1 Fabrication of CF composites
3.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticle Immobilized Cellulose Fiber Composites
3.3 Immobilizing MOFs into a Cellulosic Structure
3.4 Synthesis of COF-Grafted Cotton Fiber
3.5 Synthesis of MOF/Cellulose Composite
3.6 Fabrication of Hybrid Films via an In Situ Synthetic Method
3.7 Preparation of MOF Containing Cellulose Paper Composites
3.8 Synthesis of MOF-Incorporated CNF Composites
3.9 Fabrication of MOF-Based CNF Nanopapers
3.10 Fabrication of MOF-CNF Papers by Direct Mixing
4 Characterization
5 Applications
5.1 Adsorption
5.2 Gas Adsorption
5.3 Detection of Metal Ions`
5.4 Iodine Capture
5.5 Extraction of Organics
5.6 Separation
5.7 Wastewater Treatment
6 Bio-application
6.1 Antibacterial Activity
6.2 Drug Delivery
7 Future Perspective and Conclusion
References
Part IV: Biomedical
17 Advances of Nanocellulose in Biomedical Applications
1 Introduction
2 Types of Nanocellulose
2.1 Cellulose Nanofibrils
2.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals
2.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose
3 Properties of Nanocellulose
3.1 Surface Chemistry
3.2 Biodegradibility
3.3 Biocompatibility
3.4 Toxicology
4 Nanocellulose in Biomedical Applications
4.1 Nanocellulose as Medical Biomaterials as Replacements
4.1.1 Blood Vessel Replacement
4.1.2 Soft Tissue-Ligament, Meniscus, and Cartilage Replacements
4.1.3 Nucleus Pulposus Replacement
4.2 Drug Delivery
4.3 Tissue Engineering
4.4 Bone Regeneration
4.5 Wound Healing
4.6 Dental Applications
4.7 Cancer
4.8 Antimicrobial Activity
4.9 Immobilization of Enzymes
4.10 Biosensors and Clinical Diagnosis
5 Conclusion
References
18 Nanocelluloses as a Novel Vehicle for Controlled Drug Delivery
1 Introduction
2 Nanocellulose Biodegradability and Cytotoxicity
3 Nanocellulose Functionalization for Controlled Drug Loading and Release
4 Nanocelluloses in Drug Delivery Systems
5 Nanocelluloses in Drug Delivery System
6 Nanocellulose for Skincare Formulation
7 Nanocelluloses for Oral Drug Delivery
8 Nanocelluloses in Tablet Formulations
9 Nanocelluloses in Cosmetics Formulations
10 Nanocelluloses in Skincare Formulations
11 Nanocellulose Membranes with Drug Delivery Function
12 Nanocellulose Gels for Drug Delivery Applications
13 Nanocellulose Drug Delivery in Wound Healing Applications
14 Nanocellulose Drug Delivery in Antimicrobial Materials
15 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
19 Nanocelluloses for Tissue Engineering Application
1 Introduction
2 Tissue Engineering Process and Principles
3 Nanocelluloses for Tissue Engineering
3.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals
3.2 Cellulose Nanofibrils
3.3 Bacterial Cellulose
4 Nanocellulose Hydrogels
5 Nanocellulose Scaffolds
6 Nanocellulose 3D Printing
7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
20 Nanocellulose for Vascular Grafts and Blood Vessel Tissue Engineering
1 Introduction
2 Criteria of Vascular Grafts and Blood Vessel Tissue Engineering
2.1 Engineering of Different Lumen Diameters and Varying Structures
2.2 Integration of Engineered Vessels with the Host Vessels or Tissues
2.3 Mechanical Properties of the Structure
2.4 Biocompatibility and Hemocompatibility
3 Unique Properties of Nanocellulose
3.1 A Wide Range of Mechanical Properties (Mechanical Reinforcement)
3.2 Surface Chemistry
3.3 Biological Properties
3.3.1 Biocompatibility
3.3.2 Hemocompatibility
3.3.3 Biodegradability
3.4 Patency Parameters of Vascular Grafts
3.4.1 Endothelialization
3.4.2 Mechano-clinical Parameters
4 Nanocellulose for Vascular Tissue Engineering
4.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals
4.2 Cellulose Nanofibers
4.3 Bacterial Cellulose
5 Nanocellulose for Vascular Grafts
5.1 Common Biomaterials for Vascular Grafts
5.2 Fabrication of Bacterial Nanocellulose Grafts
5.3 Composite Forms of Bacterial Nanocellulose Grafts
5.4 Non-composited Bacterial Nanocellulose Grafts
5.5 Other Nanocellulose Types
6 Limitations of the Use of Nanocellulose in Vascular Grafts/Tissue Engineering
7 Conclusion and Remarks
References
21 Nanocellulose Biocomposites for Bone Tissue Engineering
1 Introduction
2 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
2.1 Origin-Based Classification
2.1.1 Bacterial Cellulose
2.1.2 Wood and Plant Cellulose
2.1.3 Algal Cellulose
2.1.4 Tunicate Cellulose
2.2 Morphology-Based Classification
2.2.1 Cellulose Fibers
2.2.2 Cellulose Filaments
2.2.3 Cellulose Micro/Nanofibrils
2.2.4 Crystalline Cellulose
2.3 Cellulose Derivatives
2.3.1 Cellulose Ether
Methyl Cellulose
Carboxymethyl Cellulose
Ethyl Cellulose
Hydroxyethyl Cellulose
Hydroxypropyl Cellulose
2.3.2 Cellulose Ester
Cellulose Acetate (CA)
2.3.3 Cellulose Nitrate
2.3.4 Cellulose Sulfate
3 Bone and Its Components
4 Bone Tissue Engineering (BTE)
5 Nanoentities for BTE
6 Nanocellulose in BTE
7 Nanocellulose Embedded PNCS for BTE
7.1 Spherical Cellulose NPs Embedded PNCs
7.2 CNCs/NCCs Embedded PNCs
7.3 CNFs Embedded PNCs
7.4 BC-NFs Embedded PNCs
7.5 CNW Embedded PNCs
7.6 Nanocellulose Derivatives Embedded PNCs
7.6.1 Carboxymethyl Nanocellulose
7.6.2 Hydroxyethyl Nanocellulose
7.6.3 Cellulose Acetate
7.6.4 Aerogel Cellulose
7.6.5 Oxidized-Cellulose Nanofibers
8 Toxicity and Biocompatibility of Cellulose-PNCS
9 Conclusion
10 Challenges and Future Perspective
References
22 Nanocelluloses in Wound Healing Applications
1 Introduction
1.1 Structure of the Human Skin
1.2 Types of Skin Injuries
2 Wound Healing Stages
3 Ideal Wound Healing Dressings
4 Wound Healing Biomaterials
5 Nanocelluloses for Wound Healing
5.1 Bacterial Cellulose (BC) in Wound Healing
5.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals in Wound Healing
5.3 Cellulose Nanofibers in Wound Healing
5.4 Cellulose Hydrogels in Wound Healing
6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
23 Advances in Nanocellulose for Wound Healing Applications
1 Introduction
2 Wound Repair and Regeneration
3 Criteria for Wound Healing Materials
4 Chemical Modification of Nanocellulose for Wound Healing
5 Cellulose Nanocomposites for Wound Healing
6 Nanocellulose Decorated with Nanoparticles for Wound Healing
7 Nanocellulose Functionalized with Antibacterial Agents for Wound Healing
8 3D-Printed Nanocellulose Materials for Wound Healing
9 Future Directions
10 Conclusion
References
24 Nanocelluloses for Tissue Engineering and Biomedical Scaffolds
1 Introduction
2 Tissue Engineering Approaches
3 Polymer Materials Being Used in Tissue Engineering
4 Nanocelluloses for Tissue Engineering
5 Nanocelluloses and Natural Polymers for Tissue Engineering
6 Nanocelluloses and Synthetic Polymers for Tissue Engineering
7 Unique Properties of Nanocellulose for Tissue engineering
8 Nanocellulose for Artificial skin
9 Nanocelluloses for Dental Implants
10 Nanocelluloses for Cornea Replacement
11 Nanocelluloses for Vascular Grafts
12 Nanocelluloses for Bone Tissue Scaffold
13 Nanocelluloses for Orthopedic Implants
14 Nanocelluloses for Wound Dressing
15 Market and Commercial Applications
16 Conclusion and Remarks
References
25 Nanocelluloses in Sensing Technology
1 Introduction
2 Sensors Principle and Assembly
3 Types and Classifications of Sensors
3.1 Cellulose-Based Sensors
4 Nanocelluloses in Chemical Sensors
5 Nanocelluloses in Optical Sensors
6 Nanocelluloses in Gas Sensing Applications
7 Nanocelluloses in Food Sensing Applications
8 Nanocelluloses for Water Monitoring Sensors
9 Conclusion
References
Part V: Environmental
26 Nanocellulose Membranes for Air Filtration
1 Introduction
2 Chemistry of Nanocellulose
3 Types of Nanocellulose for Air Filters
3.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
3.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
3.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNCs)
4 Types of Nanocellulose Isolation
4.1 Mechanical Treatments
4.2 Chemo-Mechanical Treatment (Kraft Pulping)
4.3 Enzymatic-Mechanical Treatment
5 Properties of Nanocellulose
6 Applications of Nanocellulose
7 Nanocellulose Air Filters
8 Conclusion and Prospects
References
27 Nanocellulose-Based Materials for Wastewater Treatment
1 Introduction
2 Cellulose Sources and Structures
3 Fabrication of Nanocellulose-Polymer Composites
4 General Considerations in Fabricating Cellulose Nanocomposite
4.1 Functionalization of Nanocelluloses to Serve as a Nanofiller
4.1.1 Urethanization Method
4.1.2 Etherification Method
4.1.3 Silylation Method
4.2 Methods for Combining Nanocellulose with a Polymer
4.2.1 Solvent Casting Method
4.2.2 Coprecipitation Method
4.2.3 In Situ Polymerization Method
5 Remarkable Properties of Nanocellulose-Polymer Nanocomposites
6 Cellulose-Nature Polymer Nanocomposites
7 Cellulose-Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites
8 Removal of Heavy Metals
9 Removal of Organic Pollutants
10 Flocculation and Coagulation
11 Oil/Water Separation
12 Removal of Microbes from Wastewater
13 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
28 Surface Functionalizations of Nanocellulose for Wastewater Treatment
1 Introduction
2 Wastewater Pollutants in Present Scenario
2.1 Nutrients
2.2 Hydrocarbons
2.3 Heavy Metal Ions
2.4 Microbes
2.5 Organic Dyes
3 Conventional Techniques for Wastewater Treatment
3.1 Chemical Methods
3.1.1 Oxidation
3.1.2 Ozonation
3.1.3 Photocatalysis
3.1.4 Electrochemical Methods
3.1.5 Electron Beam Irradiation
3.1.6 Chemical Extraction
3.1.7 Radiocolloid Treatment
3.2 Physicochemical Methods
3.2.1 Ion Exchange
3.2.2 Coagulation and Flocculation
3.2.3 Filtration
3.2.4 Adsorption
3.2.5 Screening and Flow Equalization
3.2.6 Comminution and Sedimentation
3.2.7 Precipitation
3.3 Biological Methods
4 Nanocellulose Membrane: A Super Adsorbent for Wastewater Treatment
5 Modification of Nanocelluloses for Wastewater Treatment
5.1 Covalent Modification
5.2 Non-covalent Modification
5.3 Mercerization
5.4 Esterification
5.5 Silylation
5.6 Etherification
5.7 Polymer Grafting
5.8 TEMPO Oxidation
5.9 Radiation
5.10 Ionized Gases
6 Grafting of Nanocellulose for Wastewater Treatment
6.1 Nanocellulose for Environmental Application
6.2 Carboxylation
6.3 Amination
6.4 Silanization
6.5 Amidation
6.6 Esterification
6.7 Phosphorylation
7 Decoration of Nanocellulose with Nanoparticles/Composites for Wastewater Treatment
7.1 Nanocellulose Magnetic Nanocomposites
7.2 Nanocellulose/Clay Nanocomposites
7.3 Nanocellulose/Polymer Composites
7.4 Processing of Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Composites
7.5 Properties of Polymer Cellulose Nanocomposites
7.6 Nanocellulose-Based Porous Nanocomposites (Foams)
7.6.1 Polyurethane Foams
7.6.2 Aerogels
8 Future Directions
9 Conclusions
References
29 Nanocelluloses for Removal of Heavy Metals From Wastewater
1 Introduction
2 Environmental Impacts of Heavy Metals
3 Unique Properties of Nanocellulose in Wastewater Treatment
4 Methods of Heavy Metal Removal
4.1 Membrane Separation
4.2 Coagulation and Flocculation
4.3 Chemical Precipitation
4.4 Chemical Oxidation and Reduction
4.5 Ion Exchange
4.6 Electrochemical
4.7 Sonochemical
4.8 Phytoremediation
4.9 Adsorption
5 Nanocellulose in Heavy Metal Removal
6 Surface Modification of Nanocelluloses for Heavy Metal Removal
6.1 Carboxymethylation
6.2 Sulfonation
6.3 Phosphorylation
6.4 Esterification
6.5 Silylation
6.6 Cationization
6.7 Graphting Polymers
7 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
30 Nanocellulose Membranes for Water/Oil Separation
1 Introduction
2 Membrane Technology of Oily Wastewater
2.1 Oil/Water Separation Mechanism-Based Membrane Technology
3 Membrane from Synthetic Polymers for Oil Wastewater
3.1 Electrospun Nanofibers for Oil/Water Separation
3.2 Hydrophilic-Oleophobic Nanofibrous Filtration Membranes for Oil/Water Separation
3.3 Hydrophobic-Oleophilic Nanofibrous Filtration Membranes for Oil/Water Separation
3.4 Electrospun Nanofibrous Sorption Membranes for Oil/Water Separation
3.5 Hydrophobic-Oleophilic Nanofibrous Sorption Membranes for Oil/Water Separation
4 New Generation of Nanotechnology Membrane Prepared from Nanocellulose
4.1 Cellulose and Nanocellulose: Preparation and Properties
4.1.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
4.1.2 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs)
4.1.3 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
4.1.4 Electrospun Cellulose Nanofibers (ECNFs)
4.1.5 Spherical Cellulose Nanoparticles (SCNPs)
4.2 Cellulose Nanomaterials for Oil/Water Separation
4.2.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals for Oil/Water Separations
4.2.2 Cellulose Nanofiber for Oil/Water Separation
4.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose for Oil Adsorption
5 Conclusions
References
31 Nanocelluloses for Removal of Organic Dyes from Wastewater
1 Introduction
2 Physico-Chemical Characterization of Nanocellulose
3 Different Forms of Nanocellulose in Dye Removal
3.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
3.2 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNCs)
3.3 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFs)
4 Chemical Modifications of Nanocellulose for Dye Removal
4.1 Carboxylation
4.2 Phosphorylation
4.3 Sulfonation
4.4 Other Chemical Modifications
5 Role of Nanocellulose in Dye Removal
5.1 Nanocellulose Dye Adsorbents
5.1.1 Adsorption of Cationic Dye
5.1.2 Adsorption of Anionic Dye
5.2 Adsorption of Toxic Dye Components
5.2.1 Adsorption of Hg
5.2.2 Adsorption of Cr Ions
5.2.3 Adsorption of Co, Pb, and Ni
5.2.4 Adsorption of Other Dye Constituents
6 Water Treatment and Pollution Management
7 Conclusion
References
Part VI: Constructions and Others
32 Nanocellulosic Materials for Papermaking and Paper Coating Industry
1 Introduction
2 Nanocellulosic Materials Being Used for Papermaking
3 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC)
4 Mechanical Methods
5 Homogenization
6 Microfluidization
7 Fine Grinding
8 Freezing Smashing
9 Chemical Hydrolysis
10 Alkali Hydrolysis
11 Acid Hydrolysis
12 TEMPO Hydrolysis
13 Biological Hydrolysis
14 Combined Methods
15 Cellulose Nanofibrils
16 Mechanical Treatment
17 Pretreatments of CNFs
18 Mechanical Pretreatment
19 Enzymatic Pretreatment
20 Chemical Pretreatment
21 Bacterial Cellulose
22 Nanocellulosic Materials Being Used for Paper Coating
23 Cellulose Nanocrystals
24 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNF)
25 Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers (BC)
26 Advances of Nanocellulosic Materials in Papermaking
27 Solar Cells
28 Paper Membranes
29 Flexible Electronics
29.1 Basic Electronic Components
29.1.1 Paper Electrodes and Circuits
29.1.2 Circuit Switches
29.2 Energy Storage Devices
29.2.1 Supercapacitors
29.2.2 Electrochemical Cells
29.2.3 Biofuel Cells
29.2.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries
29.3 Nanogenerators
29.4 Electrochemical Devices for Accessible Diagnostic Testing
29.4.1 Pressure Sensors
29.4.2 Nanocellulose Paper for Transparent (Opto) Electronics
30 Biodegradability of Nanocellulose Materials
31 Drawbacks in the Characterization of Nanocellulosic Material at the Industrial Scale
32 Market Perspectives
33 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
33 Nanocelluloses for Sustainable Packaging and Flexible Barrier Film Technology
1 Introduction to Packaging Materials
2 Replacement of Plastics with Nanocelluloses (NC)
2.1 Barrier Property Within NC Film
3 Sources of NC for Packaging Industry
3.1 Pre-treatment and Nanocellulose Isolation Methods
4 Types of Nanocelluloses in Packaging Industry
4.1 Nanofibrillated Cellulose (NFC)
4.1.1 Oxygen Barrier
4.1.2 Oils and Grease Barrier
4.1.3 Water Vapor Barrier
4.1.4 Aqueous Liquid Barrier
4.2 Cellulose NanoCrystals (CNCs)
4.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)
4.3.1 Electrospun Cellulose Nanofibers (ECNF)
4.4 Nanocellulose-Based Composites and Bioactive Agents
4.5 Nanocellulose-Polymer Composite
5 Nanocellulose Possibilities in packaging Industry
5.1 Food Packaging
5.2 Confectionery
5.3 Food Freshness Indicator
6 Advantages and Effectiveness of NC in Packaging
7 Smart and Active Packaging
7.1 Active Packaging
8 NC Application for Various Production Technologies
8.1 Nanocellulose in Films and Coatings
8.1.1 Extruded Nanofilms
8.1.2 Nanocellulose Films Casting from Liquids
8.1.3 Filtration and Papermaking Process
8.1.4 Coating Process in Nanofilms Making
8.2 Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications
9 Worldwide Market and Industrial Producers of NC
10 Conclusion and Future Prospective
Reference
Index