Handbook of Millets - Processing, Quality, and Nutrition Status

Contents
About the Editors
1: Millets: An Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Structure of Millets
1.3 Nutritional Composition of Millets
1.3.1 Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica L.)
1.3.2 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)
1.3.3 Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.)R.Br.)
1.3.4 Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn)
1.3.5 Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
1.3.6 Kodo Millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.)
1.3.7 Little Millet (Panicum sumatrense Roth)
1.3.8 Barnyard Millet (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauvois)
1.4 Millet Distribution
1.4.1 Pearl Millet
1.4.2 Finger Millet
1.4.3 Foxtail Millet
1.4.4 Proso Millet
1.4.5 Little Millet
1.4.6 Kodo Millet
1.4.7 Challenges in Commercial Production of Millets
1.5 Processing of Millets
1.5.1 Different Processing Methods
1.5.2 Effect of Different Processing Methods on the Functional Properties of Millets
1.5.3 Development of Millet-Based Food Products
1.5.4 Challenges in Millet Processing
1.5.5 Needs for Industrial Scale Processing of Millets
1.6 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
2: Millet Cultivation: An Overview
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Constraints
2.1.2 Nutritional Importance of Small Millets
2.2 Production Technologies of Millets
2.2.1 Sorghum (Great Millet) Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench
2.2.1.1 Land Preparation
2.2.1.2 Sowing
2.2.1.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.1.4 Weed Management
2.2.1.5 Water Management
2.2.1.6 Crop Protection
2.2.1.6.1 Pest Management
2.2.1.6.2 Disease Management
2.2.1.7 Ratoon Management in Sorghum
2.2.1.8 Varieties/Hybrids of Sorghum
2.2.2 Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum)
2.2.2.1 Land Preparation
2.2.2.2 Sowing
2.2.2.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.2.4 Weed Management
2.2.2.5 Water Management
2.2.2.6 Crop Protection
2.2.2.6.1 Pest Management
2.2.2.6.2 Disease Management
2.2.2.7 Varieties/Hybrids of Pearl Millet
2.2.3 Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana)
2.2.3.1 Land Preparation
2.2.3.2 Sowing
2.2.3.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.3.4 Weed Management
2.2.3.5 Water Management
2.2.3.6 Crop Protection
2.2.3.6.1 Pest Management
2.2.3.6.2 Disease Management
2.2.3.7 Recently Released Varieties of Finger Millet
2.2.4 Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica)
2.2.4.1 Land Preparation
2.2.4.2 Sowing
2.2.4.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.4.4 Weed Management
2.2.4.5 Water Management
2.2.4.6 Crop Protection
2.2.4.7 Recently Released Varieties of Foxtail Millet
2.2.5 Little Millet (Panicum sumatrense)
2.2.5.1 Land Preparation
2.2.5.2 Sowing
2.2.5.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.5.4 Weed Management
2.2.5.5 Water Management
2.2.5.6 Crop Protection
2.2.5.7 Released Varieties of Little Millet
2.2.6 Kodo Millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.)
2.2.6.1 Land Preparation
2.2.6.2 Sowing
2.2.6.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.6.4 Weed Management
2.2.6.5 Water Management
2.2.6.6 Crop Protection
2.2.6.7 Recently Released Varieties of Kodo Millet
2.2.7 Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
2.2.7.1 Land Preparation
2.2.7.2 Sowing
2.2.7.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.7.4 Weed Management
2.2.7.5 Water Management
2.2.7.6 Crop Protection
2.2.7.7 Varieties of Proso Millet
2.2.8 Barnyard Millet (Echinochloa frumentacea)
2.2.8.1 Land Preparation
2.2.8.2 Sowing
2.2.8.3 Nutrient Management
2.2.8.4 Weed Management
2.2.8.5 Water Management
2.2.8.6 Crop Protection
2.2.8.7 Recently Released Varieties of Barnyard Millet
2.3 Economics of Millet Cultivation
2.3.1 Economics of Millet Cultivation
2.3.2 Strategies for Enhancing the Productivity
References
3: Millet Storage and Pest Management
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Insect Pests of Millets
3.3 Factors Affecting Millet Storage
3.3.1 Moisture Content
3.3.2 Temperature
3.3.3 Duration of Storage
3.3.4 Field Infestation
3.3.5 Cracks and Crevices
3.3.6 Storage Containers
3.3.7 Transportation Containers
3.3.8 Sources of Infestation
3.4 Management of Storage Insects in Millets
3.4.1 Traditional Storage Knowledge
3.4.2 Conventional/Traditional Storage Structures
3.4.3 Storing in Pits
3.4.4 Controlled Atmospheric Storage
3.4.5 Resistance to Insects in Millets
3.4.6 Biological Control
3.5 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for the Management of Insects in Millet Storage
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Major Millet Processing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure of Millet Grains
4.3 Harvesting
4.4 Drying
4.4.1 On-Farm Drying
4.4.2 Mechanical Drying
4.5 Engineering Properties of Major Millets
4.5.1 Shape and Size
4.5.2 Weight of 1000 Kernels
4.5.3 Bulk Density, True Density and Porosity
4.5.4 Angle of Repose
4.5.5 Colour
4.5.6 Coefficient of Friction
4.5.7 Terminal Velocity
4.5.8 Specific Heat
4.5.9 Thermal Conductivity
4.6 Machinery
4.6.1 Thresher
4.6.2 Destoner-Cum-Grader-Cum-Aspirator
4.6.3 Decorticator
4.6.4 Colour Sorter
References
5: Minor Millet Processing and Its Impacts on Composition
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Millet Production
5.3 Millet Grain Structure and Types
5.4 Nutritional Value of Millets
5.5 Millet Grain Health
5.6 Food Use of Millet Grains
5.7 Millet Processing
5.8 Primary Processing Operations
5.8.1 Threshing
5.8.2 Drying
5.8.3 Cleaning
5.8.4 Decortication/Dehulling
5.9 Secondary Processing Operations
5.9.1 Polishing
5.9.2 Pulverizing
5.9.3 Soaking
5.9.4 Germination
5.9.5 Malting
5.9.6 Fermentation
5.10 Effect of Processing on Millet Grains
5.11 Effect of Processing on Nutrient Content
5.12 Effect of Processing on Phenolics and Bioactivities
5.13 Effect of Processing on Phytic Acid Content
5.14 Effect of Processing on Plasma Glycaemic Response
5.15 Summary
References
6: Chemistry of Millets: Major and Minor Constituents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nutritional Comparison of Millet with Other Major Cereals
6.3 Composition of Millets
6.3.1 Carbohydrates
6.3.2 Dietary Fibers
6.3.3 Protein
6.3.4 Lipids
6.4 Minerals and Phytochemicals
6.5 Changes in Composition Due to Processing and Storage
6.5.1 Decortication/Dehulling of Millets
6.5.2 Milling/Grinding
6.6 Hydrothermal Treatments
6.7 Malting/Germinating
6.8 Fermentation
6.9 Health Functionality of Millets
References
7: Nutritional Properties of Millets: Nutricereals with Health Benefits to Reduce Lifestyle Diseases and Malnutrition
7.1 Nutritional Importance of Millets
7.2 Nuticereal Production
7.3 Millet Utilization in India
7.4 Types of Millet
7.4.1 Sorghum
7.4.1.1 Nutritional Composition
7.4.1.1.1 Sorghum Starch
7.4.1.1.2 Sorghum Proteins
7.4.1.1.3 Lipids
7.4.1.1.4 Micronutrients
7.4.1.1.5 Phenolic Group of Compounds and Their Bioavailability
Phenolic Acids
Proanthocyanidins (Tannins)
Flavonoids
Other Phenolic Compounds
Policosanols and Phytosterols
Phytochemicals with Antinutritional Activity
7.4.1.2 Health Benefits
7.4.1.2.1 Oxidative Stress
7.4.1.2.2 Cancer
7.4.1.2.3 Obesity and Inflammation
7.4.1.2.4 Dyslipidemia
7.4.1.2.5 Diabetes
7.4.1.2.6 Hypertension
7.4.1.2.7 Gut Microbiota
7.4.2 Bajra (Pearl Millet)
7.4.2.1 Nutritive Value of Pearl Millet
7.4.2.1.1 Calories
7.4.2.1.2 Proteins
7.4.2.1.3 Lipids
7.4.2.2 Micronutrients
7.4.2.2.1 Minerals
7.4.2.2.2 Other Bioactive Compounds
7.4.3 Potential Health Benefits in Pearl Millet
7.4.3.1 Malnutrition
7.4.3.2 Constipation
7.4.3.3 Cancer
7.4.3.4 Diabetes
7.4.3.5 Other Noncommunicable Diseases
7.4.3.6 Allergies
7.4.4 Finger Millet
7.4.4.1 Phenolic Compounds
7.4.4.2 Health Benefits
7.4.4.2.1 Losing Weight
7.4.4.2.2 Bone Health
7.4.4.2.3 Antimicrobial Properties
7.4.4.2.4 Glycemic Response
7.4.4.2.5 Inhibition of Collagen Glycation and Crosslinking
7.4.4.2.6 Wound Healing Process
7.4.4.2.7 Earlier Research on Millets for Inhibition of Malt Amylases, Pancreatic Amylase, and Intestinal α-Glucosidase
7.4.4.2.8 Inhibition of Aldose Reductase (AR)
7.4.5 Foxtail Millet
7.4.5.1 Nutritional Composition
7.4.6 Kodo Millet
7.4.6.1 Nutritional Composition
7.4.7 Proso Millet
7.4.7.1 Nutritional Value
7.4.8 Japanese Barnyard Millet
7.4.8.1 Nutritional Value
7.4.9 Little Millet
7.4.9.1 Nutritional Composition
References
8: Post-harvest Treatments and Storage of Millets
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Storage of Millets
8.2.1 Traditional Storage Systems
8.2.2 Bin/Silo Storage
8.2.3 Modified Atmospheric (MA) Storage
8.2.4 Hermetic Storage
8.2.5 Storage Pest Management
8.3 Changes During Storage of Millets
8.3.1 Protein
8.3.2 Lipids
8.3.3 Fungi and Mycotoxins
8.3.4 Other Changes During Storage
8.4 Post-harvest Treatments of Millets
8.4.1 Thermal Treatments on Millets and Their Effect on Quality
8.4.1.1 Hydrothermal Treatment of Millets
8.4.1.2 Dry Heat Treatment
8.4.2 Irradiation of Millets and Their Products
8.4.3 Microwave Treatment of Millets and Products
8.4.4 Fermentation of Millets and Products
References
9: Millet Milling Technologies
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Milling/Processing of Millets
9.3 Milling of Covered Millet Grains
9.3.1 Bucket Elevator
9.3.2 Cleaning Section
9.3.3 Cleaner
9.3.4 Destoner
9.3.5 Magnetic Separator
9.3.6 Dehusking Section
9.3.7 Centrifugal Sheller
9.3.8 Rubber Roll Sheller
9.3.9 Husk Separator
9.3.10 Separation Section
9.3.11 Compartment Separator
9.3.12 Tray Separator
9.3.13 Specific Gravity Separator
9.3.14 Dehusking of Undehusked Grains After Separation
9.3.15 Polishing Section
9.3.16 Cone Polisher
9.3.17 Horizontal Abrasive Polisher
9.3.18 Vertical Abrasive Polisher
9.3.19 Horizontal Friction Polisher
9.3.20 Water Jet Polisher
9.3.21 Grading Section
9.3.22 Plansifter
9.3.23 Colour Sorter
9.3.24 Weighing and Bagging Section
9.3.25 Form Fill Seal System
9.3.26 Milling of Millets Without Husk
9.3.27 Screw Conveyor Cum Water Mixer
9.3.28 Milling of Finger Millet
9.3.29 Pedal-Operated Millet Dehusker
10: Effect of Processing on Functional Characteristics, Physiochemical Properties, and Nutritional Accessibility of Millets
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Effect of Processing on the Properties of Millets
10.2.1 Indigenous and Conventional Methods
10.2.1.1 Germination
10.2.1.2 Roasting
10.2.1.3 Soaking
10.2.1.4 Fermentation
10.2.1.5 Popping/Puffing
10.2.1.6 Milling
10.2.1.7 Malting
10.2.2 Novel and Emerging Methods
10.2.2.1 Extrusion
10.2.2.2 Microwave Treatment
10.3 Conclusion
References
11: Emerging Technologies in Millet Processing
11.1 Background
11.2 Innovations in Primary Processing
11.2.1 Decortication
11.2.1.1 Hydrothermal Processing
11.2.1.2 Nixtamalization
11.3 Secondary Processing
11.3.1 Milling and Sieving
11.3.1.1 Innovation in Hammer Milling Technique with End Suction Lift
11.3.1.2 Air Jet Milling
11.3.2 Innovations in Germination or Malting of Millets
11.3.2.1 Germination and Fermentation
11.3.2.2 Germination and Probiotic Fermentation
11.3.3 Fermentation
11.3.3.1 Fermentation with Microbial Strains
11.3.4 Use of Enzymatic Hydrolysis Technology for Value Addition of Millets
11.3.5 Popping or Puffing
11.3.5.1 High Temperature Short Time (HTST) Popping of Millets
11.3.5.2 Microwave Puffing or Popping
11.3.6 High Hydrostatic Pressure Processing for Modification of Viscoelastic Properties of Millet and Sorghum Dough
11.3.7 Application of Novel Biochemical and Nanotechnologies for Use of Millets in Nutraceutical, Functional Food and other In...
11.3.7.1 Understanding Role of Millet Phenolics in Development of Functional Foods and Diabetes Management
11.3.7.2 Exploring Novel Nanotechnologies for Promoting Food and Other Industrial Applications of Millets
11.3.7.3 Millets for Medical Science
11.3.7.4 Potential Processing of Millets into Renewable Resources
11.3.8 Emerging Use of Ultrasound in the Extraction of Polyphenols, Starch and Bioactives from Millets
11.3.9 Gamma Irradiation for Improving Keeping Quality and Nutritive Value of Millets
11.4 Conclusion
References
12: Millet Food Products
12.1 Millet Rice
12.2 Puffed and Popped Millets
12.3 Breakfast Cereals and Expanded Millet
12.4 Millet Flakes and Flattened Millet
12.5 Millet Malt
12.6 Weaning and Supplementary Foods
12.7 Millet Milk Analogue and Milk Powder
12.8 Millet Pellet
12.9 Millet Papads
12.10 Extruded Products
12.11 Milled Flour and Atta
12.12 Instant Millet Food Mixes
12.13 Millet Meal
12.14 Traditional Millet Foods in India
12.15 Traditional Millet Foods in Africa
12.15.1 Koko
12.15.2 Fura
12.15.3 Mangisi
12.15.4 Uji
12.15.5 Ben-saalga
12.15.6 Bushera
12.15.7 Togwa
12.15.8 Ogi
12.15.9 Dambu
12.15.10 Kunun Zaki
12.15.11 Jandh
12.15.12 Chhyang
12.15.13 Boza
12.16 Millet Bakery Products
12.17 Conclusion
References
13: By-products from Millet Processing Industry
13.1 Introduction
13.2 By-products of Millets
13.2.1 Finger Millet By-products and Their Utilization
13.2.1.1 Bioethanol Production
13.2.1.2 Production of Proteases and Lignolytic Enzymes
13.2.1.3 Preparation of Biscuit Using Seed Coat (SC)
13.2.2 Pearl Millet
13.2.2.1 Pearl Millet Broken as Feed
13.2.2.1.1 Poultry Feed
13.2.2.1.2 Beef Cattle
13.2.2.1.3 Pig Feeding
13.2.2.1.4 Sheep Feeding
13.2.2.2 Pearl Millet Forage
13.2.2.3 Silage
13.2.2.4 Production of Amylase
13.2.2.5 Compost
13.2.2.6 Biogas Production
13.2.2.7 Laccase Production
13.2.3 Kodo Millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)
13.2.3.1 By-products Utilization
13.2.3.1.1 Integrated Nutrient Management
13.2.3.1.2 Fly Ash Mycorrhizoremediation
13.2.3.1.3 Activated Carbon
13.2.3.1.4 Production of Lactic Acid Using Bran
13.2.3.1.5 Forage
13.2.4 Little Millet
13.2.4.1 Forage
13.2.4.2 Seed Coat
13.2.5 Properties of Millet By-products
13.2.5.1 Physicochemical and Functional Properties
13.2.6 Recovery of Bioactive Compounds of Millet By-product
13.3 Economy and Market
13.4 Challenges
13.5 Future Scope
References
14: Quality Standards for Millets
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Post-harvest Losses and Food Safety Hazards: The Underlying Factors for the Development of Millet Quality Standards
14.2.1 Seed Quality Control
14.2.2 Seed Certification Standards for Millets (India)
14.2.3 Seed Standards for the Inspection and Certification of Millets
14.2.3.1 Pre-harvest Inspection
14.2.3.2 Post-harvest Inspection
14.2.4 Truthful Labeling
14.3 Codex Alimentarius Commission Standards
14.4 USDA-GIPSA Sorghum Classes (Grain Inspection, Packers, and Stockyards Administration 2013)
14.5 South African Sorghum Standards
14.6 East African Standards
14.6.1 Sorghum Grain Specifications
14.6.1.1 Grading of Sorghum Millet
14.6.2 Pearl Millet Specifications
14.6.3 Finger Millet Specifications
14.6.3.1 Grading of Finger Millet
14.7 Australian Sorghum Standards
14.8 Conclusions
Bibliography
15: Millet Industry Scenario
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Millets Processing and Utilisation
15.3 Utilisation of Millets
15.4 Millets Marketing and Trade
15.5 Challenges and Opportunities
15.6 Millet Processing Business Models
15.6.1 Business Model-I
15.6.1.1 Millet Rice Processing Unit
15.6.1.2 Capital Inputs
15.6.1.2.1 Land and Building
15.6.1.2.2 Plant and Machinery
15.6.1.2.3 Miscellaneous Assets
15.6.1.2.4 Raw Material
15.6.1.2.5 Utilities
Power
Water
15.6.1.3 Manpower Requirements/Organisational Setup
15.6.1.4 Implementation Schedule (Tentative)
15.6.1.5 Insurance
15.6.1.6 Project Cost and Means of Financing (Rs. in Lacs)
15.6.1.7 Profitability Analysis
15.6.1.7.1 Production and Sales
15.6.1.7.2 Raw Materials Required at 100%
15.6.1.7.3 Utilities
15.6.1.7.4 Interest
15.6.1.7.5 Depreciation
15.6.1.8 Projected Profitability (Monthly) (Rs. in Lacs)
15.6.1.9 Break-Even Analysis (Rs. in Lacs)
15.6.1.10 [A] Leverages
15.6.1.10.1 [B] Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR) (Rs. in Lakhs)
15.6.2 Business Model-II
15.6.2.1 Millet Flour and Semolina (Rawa/Suji)
15.6.2.2 Procedure for Production of Millet Flour and Semolina:
15.6.2.3 Unique Qualities of the Product
15.6.2.4 Unique Qualities of the Product
15.6.2.5 Capital Inputs
15.6.2.5.1 Land and Building
15.6.2.5.2 Plant and Machinery
15.6.2.5.3 Miscellaneous Assets
15.6.2.5.4 Raw Material
15.6.2.5.5 Utilities
Power
Water
15.6.2.6 Manpower Requirements/Organisational Setup
15.6.2.7 Tentative Implementation Schedule
15.6.2.8 Insurance
15.6.2.9 Cost of the Project and Means of Financing (Rs. in Lacs)
15.6.2.10 Profitability Analysis
15.6.2.10.1 Production and Sales
15.6.2.10.2 Raw Materials Required at 100%
15.6.2.10.3 Utilities
15.6.2.10.4 Interest
15.6.2.10.5 Depreciation
15.6.2.11 Projected Profitability (Monthly) (Rs. in lacs) monthly
15.6.2.12 Break-Even Analysis (Rs. in Lakhs)
15.6.2.13 [A] Leverages
15.6.2.13.1 [B] Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR) (Rs. in Lakhs)
References
16: Toxins in Millets
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Finger Millet
16.3 Kodo Millet
16.4 Pearl Millet
16.5 Sorghum Millet
16.6 Effect of Mycotoxins
16.7 Strategies to Mitigate the Presence of Toxins in Millet
16.8 Conclusion
References