Handbook of Issues in Criminal Justice Reform in the United States

Acknowledgements
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction: The Need for Criminal Justice Reform
References
Part I: Policing
Chapter 2: Policing American Cities: Crisis and Reform from the Seventeenth to the Twenty-First Centuries
Policing American Cities: Crisis and Reform from the Seventeenth to the Twenty-First Centuries
Early Law Enforcement
Modern Policing Arrives in America
Early Reform Efforts and Failures
The Due Process Revolution
Police Power/Police Union
Urban Unrest
Outside Research
Federal Funding
Change and Reform After 1975
Community Policing
Broken Windows Policing
Hotspot Policing
Asset Forfeiture Reform
Mandatory Domestic Violence Arrest
Federal Consent Decrees
Litigation as Reform Tool
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: The Psychology of Race and Policing
The Psychology of Race and Policing
Racially Disproportionate Policing Outcomes
The Psychology of Racially Biased Policing
Police Officer Attitudes
Stereotypes
Dehumanization
Social Identity Theory
Threats to Social Identities
Social Dominance Orientation
Contextual-Level Factors’ Effect on Biased Policing
Reducing Racial Bias in Policing
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Enhancing Police Accountability and Legitimacy
Introduction
Legitimating the State Monopoly on Violence: What Policing Is for (and What It Isn’t)
Hyperlocalization and Institutional Self-Interest
Police Culture and White Supremacy
Enforcing Race in the History of American Policing
Existing Mechanisms for Holding Police Accountable
Abolition: Engaging with Alternative Approaches to Public Safety
Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy
Achieving Meaningful Legitimacy and Accountability
Establish Clear and Consistent National Standards for Police Behavior, and a Federal Leadership Structure to Enforce Them
Undertake a National “Truth and Reconciliation” Process Addressing the Full Depth and Breadth of Policing’s Racist History
Clearly Delineate Roles and Responsibilities for Disparate Public Safety Functions
Remove White Supremacists and Other Racist Police from Public Safety Professions
Establish Multiple Complementary Layers of Civilian Oversight, and Directly Involve Highly Affected Communities
Apply the Principles of Procedural Justice to the Full Range of Mission-Driven Police–Community Interactions
References
Chapter 5: Victim-Oriented Police Reform: A Comparative Perspective
Introduction
Victims of Crime, Vulnerability, and Policing
What Is Victim-Oriented Policing?
Victim-Oriented Police Reform in England and Wales
Victim-Oriented Police Reform in Argentina
Victim-Oriented Police Reform in India
Victim-Oriented Police Reform in Australia
Situating Victims and Vulnerability at the Heart of Victim-Oriented Police Reform
References
Chapter 6: The Future of Police Reform
The Future of Police Reform
The Why
The How
Classical: Internal
Classical: External
Contemporary: Diminishing
Contemporary: Alternatives
Trends in How Reformers Seek Change
The Who
Conclusion
References
Part II: Policy and Sentencing
Chapter 7: Unfinished Innovation: American Sentencing Guidelines
Unfinished Innovation: American Sentencing Guidelines
Looking Backward
Guidelines 101
Darts and Laurels of Sentencing Guidelines
Disparity Reduction
Data and Transparency
Prosecutorial Subversion
Mandatory Minimums
Supreme Turmoil
Moving Forward
Creating Conversations
Confronting Racial Disparities
Expanding the Scope
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Racial, Ethnic, Gender, and Economic Sentencing Disparity
Extralegal Disparities in Sentencing: An Overview
Understanding Sentencing Disparities
Conclusion: Recommendations for Reform
References
Chapter 9: Bail Reform in the United States: The What, Why, and How of Third Wave Efforts
Bail Reform
Definitions
The History of Bail in the United States
Movement to Monetary Bail
Bail Act of 1966
Bail Act of 1984
Summary of Bail Reform Efforts Over the Years
Bail Decision-Making Today
Consequences of Bail
Pretrial Detention
People of Color
Indigent Defendants
People with Behavioral Health Needs
Current Bail Reform Efforts
Ending Money Bail
Implementing Pretrial Risk Assessment Instruments
Addressing Failure to Appear
Providing Pretrial Services and Supervision
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Case Prosecution: Race, Justice, and Decision-Making
Case Prosecution: Race, Justice, and Decision-Making
The Prosecutor’s Dual Roles
Theoretical Perspectives on Prosecutorial Decision-Making
Factors Affecting Prosecutorial Outcomes
Case Acceptance at Screening
Case Dismissal After Filing
Charge Reductions
Plea Offers
Making Sense of Race and Prosecution
Racial Justice and Prosecutorial Reforms
Use Data to Examine Performance
Publish Public Data Dashboards
Conduct Research on Racial Disparities
Decline to Prosecute Certain Types of Cases
Reduce the Use of Incarceration through Diversion and Charging Practices
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Juvenile Sentencing Reform
Introduction
Get Tough Sentencing Reforms
Sentencing Juveniles in Juvenile Court
Mandatory Minimum Sentences
Juvenile Blended Sentences
Sentencing Juveniles in Criminal Courts
Capital Punishment
Life Without the Possibility of Parole
Kids Are Different Sentencing Reforms
Sentencing Juveniles in Adult Court
Capital Punishment
Life Without the Possibility of Parole
Sentencing Juveniles in Juvenile Court
The Future of Juvenile Sentencing
References
Chapter 12: Risk Assessment in Sentencing
Introduction
Punishment Theory
Uses of Risk Assessment in Sentencing
How Does Risk Assessment Work?
Risk, Promotive, and Proxy Factors
Types of Instruments
Risk Assessment in Practice
Risk Assessment in State Sentencing
Risk Assessment in Federal Sentencing
Empirical Research on Risk Assessment
Outcome Studies
Does Risk Assessment Reduce Incarceration Rates?
How Does Risk Assessment Impact Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing?
Four Challenges for Risk assessment in Sentencing
Implications for Practice in Criminal Justice Reform
Constructing Democratically Accountable Risk Instruments
Increase Education and Training
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Criminal Justice Policy Reform Through Researcher–Practitioner/Policymaker Partnerships
Introduction
Researcher–Practitioner Partnerships
Implementation of RPPs
Outcomes of RPPs
RPP Between FSU and the Florida Senate Criminal Justice Committee
Project Initiation
Preliminary Discussions
Contract Negotiation
Data Gathering
Project Implementation
Team Meetings
Project Outcomes
Conclusion
Supplemental Material: Example Racial/Ethnic Impact Statement
Contributors
Executive Summary
Bill Summary
Comparable Legislation and Prior Research
Data and Methods for Racial/Ethnic Impact Forecast
Results
Racial/Ethnic Impact Statement for the Bill
References
Part III: Supervision and Reentry
Chapter 14: The History of Probation and Parole
Probation and Parole: A Basic Introduction
History of Probation
“Bailing on Probation”: Community Supervision in the American Colonies
Probation as Charitable Work: Community Supervision in the New America
Progressive Probation: Community Supervision in the Early Twentieth Century
History of Parole
Early Release, “Free and Clear”: Pardons, Commutations, and “Good-Time” Laws
“Conditional Liberation”: Release on Parole
Conclusions and Implications
References
Chapter 15: Probation and Parole: From Control to Case Management
A Brief Overview of the Principles of Punishment
A Brief History of Probation and Parole
The Correctional Pendulum
The Rehabilitative Ideal
Heightened Control
Crisis in Corrections
Suggested Reforms for the Future of Probation and Parole
Summary
References
Chapter 16: Reimagining Probation Reform: Applying a Coaching Model to Probation Departments
Probation Officer as a Coach: Building a New Professional Identity
Probation Chief as a General Manager
Rule Enforcement vs. Behavioral Change
Relationship with People on Supervision
Correctional Agency Mission
Probation Departments as a Coaching Organization: Three Key Infrastructural Changes
Benefits of a Coaching Organization
Conclusion: Building a Field for Probation Coaches
References
Chapter 17: Juvenile Probation Reform: Moving from Surveillance to Effective Intervention
Traditional Probation Model and Its Limitations
Adolescent Development
Applying Adolescent Development Science to Probation
Approaches to Probation Reform
Bringing Probation in Line with Risk-Need-Responsivity Principles
Risk Principle
Need Principle
Responsivity Principle
Limitations of the RNR Model
RNR in Practice in Probation: Misdemeanor Services Unit in Lucas County, Ohio
Implementing Graduated Response
Theoretical Foundations of Graduated Response
Principles of Graduated Response
Graduated Response in Practice: Opportunity-Based Probation in Pierce County, Washington
Reforming Case Management Strategies: Putting It All Together
Effective Communication with Youth
Engagement of the Family
Providing Culturally Appropriate Services
Conclusions and Future Directions
Policy Recommendations
Future Research Agendas
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Prisoner Reentry Programs
Public Opinion on Incarceration and Reentry
General Support for Rehabilitation
Specific Support for Reentry
Public Belief in Offender Redeemability
Types of Reentry Programs
In-Prison Programs
Community-Based Reentry Programs
Continuity of Care
The Effectiveness of Prisoner Reentry Programs
Empirical Findings on Reentry Programs
Accounting for the Weak Effects of Reentry Programs
Reasons for Program Failures
Reasons for Nonsignificant Findings
Conclusion: The Future of Reentry Programs
A Theoretical Foundation for Reentry Practice
Improving Evaluations and Metrics of Success
References
Chapter 19: The Pendulum of Community Supervision: The Emergence of RNR, Working Alliance, and Motivational Factors as a Means to Improve Supervision
Tensions in the Field: The Sociohistorical Context of Community Supervision
The Inception of Probation and Parole in the Context of Rehabilitation
The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal and a New Penology
RNR and the Resurgence of the Rehabilitative Ideal
The Crisis of Penological Modernism
Evaluation of Sanctions
Physical Sanctions
Psychological Sanctions
Conclusions on Intermediate Sanctions
Evaluation of Findings for Rehabilitative Tools
Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR)
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Working Alliance
Motivational Interviewing
Barriers to WA and MI
Strength-Based Approaches
Good Lives Model (GLM)
Discussion
Conclusion: Toward Community Supervision Reform
References
Chapter 20: Paroling Authorities and the Challenge of Leverage in an Era of Chronic Mass Incarceration
Introduction: The Renewal of Interest in Paroling Authorities
Paroling Authorities and the Dawn of Chronic Mass Incarceration
The Discourse of Reform and the Bifurcation of Penal Policy
The Promise of Reform
The Bifurcation of American Penal Policy
Paroling Authorities and Decarceration
In Pursuit of Prison Downsizing: Recommendations for Parole Release
Recommendations
Use Structured Decision Tools to Prioritize Individuals Assessed as Low Risk for Presumptive Parole Release at the Earliest Opportunity
Deploy Presumptive Decision Criteria for Administrative Parole that Reduce the Need to Hear Low-Risk Cases
Direct Parole Decision-Making Resources to the Most Serious, High-Risk Cases Within a Hearing Process Bounded by Procedural Integrity
Adopt a Presumption of Compassionate Parole Release for Eligible Individuals
Presumptive Release Eligibility should be Reached at 15 Years for Individuals with Life Sentences
Paroling Authorities, the Length of Sentence, and the Mitigation of Harm
References
Part IV: Treatment
Chapter 21: A History of Psychological Treatment in the Criminal Justice System
Transinstitutionalization of the Mentally Ill and the Explosion of the Prison Population
Nothing Works
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
The Introduction of Relapse Prevention
The Risk Need Responsivity Model
Positive Psychology/Strength-Based Approaches
Self-Determination Theory
The Good Lives Model
Efficacy of a Strengths-Based Approach
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: New Directions in the Treatment of Justice-Involved Individuals with Severe Mental Illness
Law Enforcement and Emergency Services
Established Interventions: Crisis Intervention Teams
Emerging Interventions: Co-Response Teams, Mobile Crisis Models, and Pre-Arrest Diversion
Combining Models?
Initial Hearings and Initial Detention
Courts and Jail
Established Interventions: Mental Health Courts
Emerging Interventions: Co-Occurring Courts?
Emerging Interventions: Treatment Within Jails and Prisons
Reentry from Jails and Prisons
Emerging Interventions: Expedited Medicaid Enrollment
Emerging Interventions: Expedited Reentry Services
Community Corrections and Community Support Services
Established Interventions: Forensic Assertive Community Treatment
Emerging Interventions: Specialized Mental Health Probation Teams
Emerging Intervention: Technology in Community Support Service
Conclusion: The State of the Evidence Across the Sequential Intercept Model
References
Chapter 23: Treatment of Individuals Who Have Offended Sexually: An Update on Evidence-Based Practice
Where Were We?
What is New?
Treatment Effectiveness
Risk/Need/Responsivity (RNR) Model
Other Factors Associated with Treatment Effectiveness
Conclusion and Implications for Criminal Justice Reform
References
Chapter 24: Trauma-Informed Treatment Practices in Criminal Justice Settings
Trauma and Crime
Trauma: What is It, and Why Does It Hurt?
The Traumatic Childhood
Cultural, Historical & Intergenerational Trauma, Systemic Racism, and the Trauma of Poverty
Diagnostic Considerations
What Exactly is Trauma-Informed Care?
Trauma-Informed Care and Criminal Justice
The Anatomy of Trauma-Informed Care
What It All Means for Practitioners
Useful Questions for Professionals and Organizations Interested in Implementing TIC
References
Chapter 25: Education Programs
Introduction
Prison Education Programs
A Brief History of Correctional Education
Recidivism, Employment, and Cost Effectiveness Benefits of Education Programs
Recidivism
Post-Release Employment
Conclusion
References
Chapter 26: Treatment of Juvenile Offenders: Toward Multisystemic Risk and Resource Management
History of Rehabilitation and Treatment in Juvenile Justice
Social-Ecological Framework
Interventions
Individual-Level
Family-Based
Functional Family Therapy
Community-Based
Multisystemic Therapy
Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care
Overcoming Barriers to Implementation
Toward a Multisystemic Risk and Resource Management System in Juvenile Justice
References
Chapter 27: Therapy with Exonerated Clients: Domains of Need
Domains of Need for Therapy
Compensation and Exonerated Individuals
Variability in Access to Compensation
Mental Health Needs and Exonerated Individuals
Incarcerated Individuals Generally
Mental Health Needs Specific to Exonerees
Trauma
Emotions
Adjustment
Relationships
Finances
Stigma
Notoriety
Propensity for Offending
Education and Jobs
Providing Mental Health Services to Exonerees: Analysis and Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 28: The Role of the Criminal Justice System in Substance Abuse Treatment
Introduction
A Brief History of Substance Abuse Treatment in the CJS
Early System Interventions
1989–Present: From Drug Courts to Justice Mental Health
Substance Abuse Treatment in the Criminal Justice System
Reentry Movement and Focus on Substance Abuse Treatment
Best Practices for Substance Abuse Treatment in the CJS
NIDA’s Principles of Drug Abuse Treatment for Criminal Justice Populations
Federal Funding Standards
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Part V: Alternatives to Incarceration
Chapter 29: Prevention and Criminal Justice Reform
History and Framework of Prevention: A Social–Ecological Perspective
The Structure of Prevention and Intervention: Tiered Interventions
Racial Disparities and the Overrepresentation of Other Marginalized Groups
Prevention by Disbanding the School-to-Prison Pipeline
Evidence-Based School Prevention and Intervention Programs
Evidence-Based Community Prevention and Intervention Programs
The Way Forward and Conclusion
References
Chapter 30: Police-Led Diversion Programs: Rethinking the Gateway to the Formal Criminal Justice System
Reforming the Gateway to the Criminal Justice System: Police-Led Diversion
Overview of the History of Police-Led Diversion
Exploring the Literature on Cautioning and Diversion
Treatments and Conditions with Police-led Diversion
The Effectiveness of Out-of-Court Disposals
Reduced Reoffending?
Reduced Harm?
Reduced Victimisation?
Increased Victim Satisfaction?
Reduced Cost, Simplicity of Process and Ease of Use?
Speed of Justice?
Improved Public Confidence/Perception?
Is Diversion with Conditions More Effective than Those with None?
Is Diversion with Conditions More Effective than Prosecution in Court?
Domestic Abuse Cases
Black and Minority Offenders
Female Offenders
Mental Health Diversion
The Challenge of Implementation
Eligibility Screening
Needs Assessment
Referral and Condition Setting
Training, Tracking and Feedback
Conclusions and Prospects for Future of Police-Led Diversion
References
Chapter 31: Prosecutorial Diversion Programs
Mass Incarceration in the United States
Critical Role of Prosecutors within the Criminal Justice System
The Progressive Prosecution Movement
Initial Development of PLDPs
Review of Contemporary PLDP Models
Prosecutors’ Role in Criminal Justice Reform and Smart Decarceration Efforts
Suggestions for Future Research and Criminal Justice Reform Efforts
Conclusion
References
Chapter 32: Drug Courts: The Good, the Bad, and the Misunderstood
Introduction
The Good News
Effectiveness
Cost-Effectiveness
Target Population
Best Practices
Judicial Status Hearings
Multidisciplinary Team
Drug and Alcohol Testing
Graduated Rewards and Sanctions
Substance Use Treatment
Complementary Services
Culturally Proficient Services
Best Practice Standards
The Bad News
Targeting Criteria
Violence Exclusions
Drug Dealing Exclusions
Suitability Determinations
Medication-Assisted Treatment
Racial and Ethnic Disparities
Jail Sanctions
Misunderstood Lessons
References
Chapter 33: Mental Health Courts
Mental Illness and the Criminal Justice System
Historical Perspective
The Crisis in the Criminal Justice System
Advent of Mental Health Courts
Mission
Paradigm Shifts
MHCs in Practice
Selection
Biases of MHCs
Therapeutic Agents and the MHC Team
What Works and What Doesn’t
Advancing Mental Health Court Reforms
Therapeutic Orientation
Collaborative Orientation
Beyond Criminal Justice: Prevention Prior to MHCs
References
Chapter 34: Alternatives to Youth Incarceration
Introduction
What Do We Mean by “Alternatives to Incarceration”?
National Data on Youth Incarceration
Financial Costs and Other Harms to Youth
Juvenile Justice Reform Efforts
State Policy Initiatives
Probation and Its Enhancements
Day or Evening Reporting Centers
Group Homes
Other Community-Based Treatment Approaches
Recommendations for Advancing Juvenile Justice Reform
References
Chapter 35: Electronic Monitoring as an Alternative to Incarceration as Part of Criminal Justice Reform
EM Devices
Advantages of Electronic Monitoring
Reduce Overcrowding and Financial Costs
Wide-Ranging Use
Deterrence Measure
Reintegration and Rehabilitation
Disadvantages of Electronic Monitoring
Equipment Issues and Malfunction
Who Covers the Cost?
Public Perception
Limited Information
Time-Consuming for Parole and Probation Officers
Effectiveness Research
Recommendations for EM Implementation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 36: Restorative Justice and Criminal Justice Reform: Forms, Issues and Counter-Strategies
Introduction
What Is Restorative Justice?
Restorative Justice as a Social Movement
Restorative Justice as a Set of Values
Restorative Justice as a Set of Practices
Restorative Justice and Criminal Justice Reform
Forms
A Sui Generis Sanction
Endorsement of Criminalisation
Professional Practices
Ancillary Justice
Coercion and Surveillance
Idealised Stakeholders
Issues
Re-Definition and Co-Optation
Reification
Obliteration of Personal Differences
Counter-Strategies
A Vision
Some Examples
Conclusions: Whither Restorative Justice?
References
Part VI: Conclusions: The Path Forward
Chapter 37: The Future of Criminal Justice Reform
The Way Forward
Concluding Remarks
References
Index