Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan: A project of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan (NPEIV)

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
About the Section Editors
Contributors
Section I: Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across The Lifespan: Foundations and Perspectives
1 Fundamentals of Understanding Interpersonal Violence and Abuse
Introduction
Commonalities and Dynamics Across All Forms of Interpersonal Violence
Recurrent Themes Across All Types of Interpersonal Violence
Developmental Perspective: Family Dynamics, Adverse Childhood Experiences, Poly-victimization, and Trauma
Intersectionality, Status, Power, and Control
Cultural Issues and Special Populations
Common Risk and Protective Factors
Increasing Awareness: The Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan
Definitions, Theories, and Scope of Types of Interpersonal Violence
Systems Involved in Interventions
Intervention Approaches and Programs
Prevention Programs
Controversial Issues
Future Directions
Organizing to Connect Agendas: History of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan (NPEIV)
Action: Call for Integrating Research, Practice, Advocacy, and Policy
National Plan to Reduce Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
2 Integration of the Types of Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan
Introduction
Case Study
Historical Reductionism: Splitting Apart the Complex Context of Violence
Age
Ability Status
Gender
Racial and Ethnic Identities
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Violence by Environment and Context
Community and SES
Institutions: Schools, Military, and Prisons
Schools
Military
Prisons
Border Crossings
A New Vision: Interconnections, Not Silos
The Lifespan Context of Violence
Cascading Impact of Early Violence and Impact Across the Lifespan: Focus on Attachment
Attachments in Infancy
Attachments in Early Childhood
Attachments in Adolescence
Attachments in Adulthood
Attachment in Older Adulthood
Lifespan Versus Incident Approach to Understanding Violence Exposure
Public Health Approach
Multidisciplinary Responses to Violence
Shift in the Role of Criminal Justice
Shift in the Role of Educators
Shift in the Role of Medical Professionals
Shift in the Role of Social Services
Shift in the Role of Mental Health
Shift in the Role of Policy Makers/Politicians
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
References
3 A History of Interpersonal Violence: Raising Public Concern
Introduction
Current Situation: Violence as Harm
The Biopolitics of Interpersonal Violence
Violence as Excess
Violence as Deviance
Violence as Conflict
Violence as Oppression
Violence as Trauma
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
References
4 Examining Interpersonal Violence from a Trauma-Informed and Human Rights Perspective
Introduction
What We Know About Various Forms of Interpersonal Violence
Child Abuse
Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Assault
Older Adults
Community Violence
Peer Violence
Gang Violence
Hate Crimes
Examining Interpersonal Violence from a Human Rights Framework
Trauma-Informed Perspective
Integrating the Trauma-Informed and Human Rights Perspectives
Toward a National Commitment to End Interpersonal Violence
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
5 Adverse Childhood Experiences: Past, Present, and Future
Introduction
The History of ACEs
Prevalence of ACEs
Cumulative, Dose-Response Effect of ACEs
ACEs and Health
ACEs and Substance Use
ACEs and Mental Health
ACEs and Behavioral Problems
ACEs and Other Outcomes
Scope of Adverse Experiences
Different Approaches to Models of ACEs
Causal Pathways from ACEs to Outcomes
Chronic Overactivation of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
DNA Methylation
Alteration of Immune and Inflammatory Functions
Alterations to Brain Structure and Function
Alterations to Emotion and Behavior Regulation
Intergenerational Epigenetic Effects of ACEs
Protective Factors
Summary and Conclusion
Key points
References
6 Trauma-Informed Systems of Care
Trauma, Interpersonal Violence, and Social Support
Secondary Survivors
Social Support
Trauma and Health
Trauma-informed Care
Awareness of Trauma and Its Impact: Rrrrs in Action
Safety
Trustworthiness and Transparency
Empowerment and Choice
Peer Support
Collaboration and Mutuality
Cultural, Historical, and Gender Issues
Attention to Secondary Survivors
Organizational Structure and Culture
Agency Self-assessment
Collaboration with Trauma-Informed Partner Agencies
Individual Level Barriers to Implementation
Counter-Transference, Vicarious Trauma, and Burnout
Social Attitudes Towards Traumatized Populations
Self-protection and the ``Just World´´ Hypothesis
Agency Level Barriers to Implementation
Resistance to Change
Cultural and Ideological Differences
Turf Issues
Lack of Knowledge and Fear of Trauma Contagion
Financial Barriers
Workplace Bullying and Sexual Harassment
Innovations in Assessment and Treatment
Controversies, Questions, and Issues for Future Research
Key Points
Summary
Cross-References
References
7 Intersectionality
Introduction
Historical Origins
Practical Implications of Intersectionality
Implementing Intersectionality in Everyday Practice
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
8 Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma Among Black Americans: Black Wellness Matters
Introduction
America, Free of Africans: Considering Contributions of Black Psychology
Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma
Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma Definitions
Power and Control Wheel of Historical Trauma
Physical Violence
Sexual Violence
Systematic Resource Denial
Economic Abuse
Appropriation of Cultural Resources, Traditions, and Knowledge
Spiritual Abuse
Race Socialization Via Cultural Abuse
Psychological Abuse
Long-Term Effects of Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma
Clinical Applications when Working with Black Americans
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
9 Defining Gun Violence Using a Biopsychosocial Framework: A Public Health Approach
Introduction
Gun Violence as a Disease
Gun Violence as a Complex Biopsychosocial Disease
Biological Component of Gun Violence
Psychological Component of Gun Violence
Social Component of Gun Violence
Gun Violence Prevention and Haddon´s Matrix
Examples of Gun Violence Prevention Policy and Practice
Case Example
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
10 Suicidality and Interpersonal Violence
Introduction
Suicidality and Domestic Violence
Suicide as Escape
Vulnerable Populations
Suicide Threat as a Tool of Abuse
Risk to Male Perpetrators
Interpersonal Murder-Suicide
Intimate Partners
Child Murder-Suicide
Familicide and Other Types
Theories of Murder-Suicide
Child Abuse and Suicide
Child Suicides
ACES as Predictor of Adult Suicidality
Diathesis-Stress Model of Suicidality
Bullying and Suicidality
Definitions and Types
Bullying of Children
Cyberbullying
Workplace Bullying
Sexual Abuse and Suicidality
Child Sex Abuse
Abuse by Clergy
Neurobiological Impact of Child Sex Abuse
Adult Rape and Sexual Assault
Sex Trafficking and Suicidality
Domestic Homicide, Suicide, and Firearms
Suicidality and Interpersonal Violence - Future Directions
Multimorbidity
Coordinated Assessments
Intervention and Assessment of At-Risk Youth
Protective Factors for Bullied Youth
Preventative Measures for Child Sexual Abuse
Recommendations for Sex Trafficking
Prevention of Murder-Suicide
Promising Approaches to Suicide Prevention
Further Research
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
References
11 A National Plan to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan
Introduction
The Work of the National Partnership
The Scope of the Problem
Unequal Access and Other Barriers to Systems of Protection
Improving the Development and Delivery of Prevention Initiatives Within a Coordinated Community Public Health Model
Recommendations
Developing a Competent Workforce
Strengthening Health and Mental Healthcare Responses to Violence
Strengthening Justice System Responses to Cases of Interpersonal Violence
Connecting Research to Practice
Improving Public Awareness and Public Policy
Public Policy
Provide Public Policy Advocacy Training
Key Points
Conclusions
References
Section II: Maltreatment and Victimization of Children and Adolescents
12 An Introduction to Child and Youth Maltreatment: Consequences and Considerations
Introduction
Historical Review of Child Abuse and Child Protection
Maltreatment and Victimization of Children and Adolescents
Child Physical Abuse
Neglect
Sexual Abuse
Emotional Abuse
Family Violence and Teen Dating Violence
Cultural Issues
Consequences and Interventions
Recognizing and Responding
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
13 Overview of Child Maltreatment
Introduction
Defining and Assessing Child Maltreatment
Types of Child Maltreatment
Other Ways to Conceptualize Child Maltreatment
Consideration of Assessment Approaches
Consequences of Child Maltreatment
Introduction to Child Maltreatment Research
Psychological Outcomes
Behavioral Outcomes
Physical Health Outcomes
Resilience
Mechanisms of Effects
Economic Costs of Child Maltreatment
Risk Factors for and the Context of Child Maltreatment
Parental and Caregiver Risk Factors
Familial Risk Factors
Neighborhood Risk Factors
Limitations and Future Considerations in Child Maltreatment Research and Practice
Limitations in Child Maltreatment Research
Future Considerations in Child Maltreatment Research and Practice
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
Section III: Physical Abuse of Children and Adolescents
14 Parents Who Physically Abuse: Current Status and Future Directions
Introduction
Defining Physical Abuse
Epidemiology
Connections to Other Forms of Interpersonal Violence
Risk and Protective Factors
Intrapersonal Factors
External Factors
Protective Factors
Prevention Initiatives and Intervention Options
Future Directions
Public Policy Implications
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
15 Corporal Punishment: From Ancient History to Global Progress
Definition
Introduction
Historical Context
Prior to Recorded History
The Age of Antiquity
The Medieval Period
The Age of Enlightenment
The Modern Period
The Age of Children´s Rights
The Legal Status of Corporal Punishment Today
Corporal Punishment in Homes
Corporal Punishment in Schools
Corporal Punishment in Alternative Care and Child Care Settings
Judicial Corporal Punishment
Corporal Punishment in Response to Violations of Community Norms
Corporal Punishment and Political Conflict
The Current State of Research on Corporal Punishment´s Outcomes
Outcomes of Corporal Punishment by Parents
Outcomes of School Corporal Punishment
Research on Children´s Perspectives
The Prevalence of Corporal Punishment of Children
Challenges to Estimating Prevalence
Standardized International Prevalence Estimates
Approaches to Prevention
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
16 Abusive Head Trauma: Understanding Head Injury Maltreatment
Introduction
Definition
Epidemiology and Risk Factors
Clinical Presentation
Clinical Timing of Injury
Mechanism of Injury
Common Injuries or Findings in AHT
Intracranial Hemorrhages
Parenchymal Injury
Axonal Injury and Hypoxic Injury
Neck and Spinal Injury
Ocular Findings
Fractures
Head and Facial Bruising
Findings at Autopsy
Evaluation of Abusive Head Trauma
History-Taking and Multidisciplinary Evaluation
Imaging Evaluation
Laboratory Evaluation
Accidental Injury Versus AHT
Mimics
Birth Injury
Benign Enlargement of the Subarachnoid Spaces
Rebleeding
Coagulopathies
Connective Tissue Disorders
Glutaric Aciduria Type 1
Menkes Disease
Outcomes
Prevention
Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
17 Domestic Child Torture: Identifying Survivors and Seeking Justice
Understanding Domestic Child Torture
Introduction
Child Torture - The Medical Definition
Improving the Identification of Child Torture Cases: CPS Investigations
Failure to Protect Case Example - Adrian Jones
Indicators That Can Signal Child Torture
Multiple Reports of Child Abuse
Series of Serious Physical Assaults
Documentation
Intentionally Depriving Life´s Necessities (Food, Water, Restroom) from the Child
Documentation
Isolation, Withdrawal from Activities, Deprivation of Human Contact through Surveillance Equipment or Restraints, and or Confi...
Documentation
Odd and/or Painful Regimes of Physical Discipline Intended to Break the Will of the Child
Documentation
What Happened to Adrian Jones
Child Torture, Available Charges Do Not Fit the Crime
State Codes
Model Code
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Appendix A
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
References
18 Fractures
Fractures: An Introduction
General Bone Physiology
Vitamin D
Parathyroid Hormone
Calcitonin
Phosphate
Fracture Healing
Fracture Morphology
Fracture Biomechanics
Plastic Deformation and Greenstick Fractures
Transverse Fracture
Spiral Fracture
Oblique Fracture
Buckle Fracture
Classic Metaphyseal Lesion
Fractures and Specificity for Abuse
Classic Metaphyseal Lesions
Rib Fractures
Scapular Fractures
Sternal Fractures
Spinous Process Fractures
Differential Diagnoses
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Vitamin D Deficient Rickets
Hyperparathyroidism
Menkes Disease
Scurvy
Caffey Disease
Osteomyelitis
Other Causes
Iatrogenic Agents
Novel Theories
``Temporary Brittle Bone Disease´´
``Healing Rickets´´
``Temporary Brittle Bone Disease´´ from In Utero Confinement
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
Medical Evaluation
Obtaining History
Physical Examination
Laboratory Analysis
Radiology
Sibling Evaluation
Key Points
Conclusion
Summary
Cross-References
References
19 Abusive Burns
Introduction
History
Medical Evaluation
Burn Classification
Types of Burns
Thermal Burns
Radiant Burns
Chemical Burns
Electrical Burns
Friction Burns
Cold Injury
Medical Child Abuse
Scene Investigation
Burn Mimics
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
20 Bruising in Suspected Child Maltreatment
Introduction
Pathophysiology
Approach to Clinical Assessment
History
Examination
Documentation of Findings
Injury Interpretation and Diagnostic Considerations
Age and Developmental Ability of the Child
Injury Location
Shape/Pattern
Number of Injuries
Impact of Medical Conditions Affecting Bruising
Children with Medical Illnesses
Children with Bleeding Disorders
Children with Motor Disability:
Dating of Bruises
Laboratory and Radiologic Testing in the Evaluation of Bruising in Suspected Maltreatment
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
21 Inflicted Thoracoabdominal Trauma
Introduction
Epidemiology
Clinical Presentation
History
Delay in Seeking Care
Solid Organ Injuries
Case Study (Pancreatic Pseudocyst)
Hollow Viscus Injuries
Thoracic Trauma
Laboratory Evaluation
Imaging Studies
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
22 Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy
Introduction
Definition and Names
Epidemiology
Diagnosis
Examples
Covert Video Surveillance
Case Management
Legal Issues
Future
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
23 Corporal Punishment: Finding Effective Interventions
Introduction
The Discovery of Childhood
The Child Protection Movement
Estimates of Corporal Punishment
Correlates of Corporal Punishment
Harm and Ineffectiveness of Corporal Punishment
Interventions to Reduce Corporal Punishment
Alternatives to Physical Discipline
The Worldwide Movement to End Corporal Punishment
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
24 Child Physical Abuse: A Pathway to Comprehensive Prevention
Introduction
Mental Health Promotion Strategies
Universal Prevention Strategies
Individual and Family Level
Community Level
Societal Level
Primary Prevention Strategies
Individual and Family Level
Community Level
Societal Level
Secondary Prevention Strategies
Individual and Family Level
Community Level
Societal Level
Tertiary Prevention Strategies
Individual and Family Level
Community Level
Societal Level
Societal Level Implementation on the Family Level
Quaternary Prevention Strategies
Individual Level
Family Level
Families of Origin
Foster Families
System-Level Interventions
Disparities in CPA, Service Involvement, and Service Delivery
Effectiveness of Prevention Programming
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
25 Child and Youth Fatality Review
A Description of Child Fatality Review Teams
The History of Child Fatality Review Teams
Deaths of Young Children
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Infant Sleeping Practices
Shaken Baby Syndrome/Abusive Head Trauma
Child Deaths Involving Intimate Partners
Information on CFRT Recommendations Regarding Young Children
Deaths of Adolescents
Adolescent Suicide
Adolescent Homicide: Intimate Partner Fatalities
The National Child Death Review Case Reporting System
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions: The Future Promise of Child Fatality Review
Cross-References
References
Section IV: Neglect of Children and Adolescents
26 The Etiology of Child Neglect and a Guide to Addressing the Problem
Introduction: The Need for Neglect Research
The Etiology of Neglect
Societal/Community Context
Family Context
Parent Factors
Child Factors
Summary
Prevention and Intervention
Societal-/System-Level Prevention
Family-Focused Prevention
Key Points Related to Child Neglect
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
27 The Nature of Neglect and Its Consequences
Introduction: The Historical ``Neglect of Neglect´´ and Past Reviews
Definitions of Child Neglect
Conceptual Considerations
The Heterogeneity and Dimensions of Neglect
Measurement and Assessment
Incidence and Prevalence of Neglect
Consequences
Cognitive
Mental Health
Physical Health
Biological
Key Points Related to Child Neglect
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
28 Child Neglect
Introduction
Physical Neglect
Introduction
Special Considerations
Diagnostic Evaluation
Treatment
Nutritional Neglect
Introduction
Failure to Thrive
Diagnostic Evaluation
Outcomes
Risk Factors and Causes
Parent Child Interaction
Treatment
Severe Malnutrition and Fatal Nutritional Neglect
Obesity
Evaluation
Treatment
Educational Neglect
Introduction
Diagnostic Evaluation
Emotional Neglect
Introduction
Diagnostic Evaluation
Medical Neglect
Introduction
Diagnostic Evaluation
Dental Neglect
Autonomy
Supervisory Neglect
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
29 Dental Neglect
Introduction
Dental Neglect Definition
Signs of Dental Neglect
Pathology of Dental Neglect
Barriers to Recognition
Recognition Requires Reporting
Prevention
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section V: Sexual Abuse of Children and Adolescents
30 Sexual Abuse of Children
Introduction
History
Foundations
Definition of Sexual Abuse
Effects of Sexual Abuse
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
31 Child Sexual Abuse Disclosure and Forensic Practice
Introduction
Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse
Forensic Practice
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
32 Succeeding with Nonoffending Caregivers of Sexually Abused Children
Introduction
Caregiver Response to Abuse Disclosure
Reaction to Disclosure
Types of Frameworks for Understanding Caregiver Reactions
Other Factors Contributing to Nonoffending Caregivers Reaction
Factors for Improving Reaction to Disclosure
How to Support Caregivers
Engaging Support Systems
Managing Professional Frustrations
Communicating with Caregivers
Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Therapy for Nonoffending Caregivers
Engaging Their Children in Evidence-Based Therapy
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
33 Recognizing and Responding to Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Sexual Behaviors of Children: A Primer for Pare...
Introduction
The Critical Importance of Accessing Quality Resources and Expertise
Developmentally Appropriate Sexual Behaviors: Preadolescence
Children Below the Age of Four
Children Ages Four to Six
Children Seven to Twelve Years of Age
Concerning Sexual Behaviors: Preadolescence
Developmentally Appropriate Sexual Behaviors: Adolescence and Teenage Years
Developmentally Inappropriate/Deviant Sexual Behaviors: Adolescence and Teenage Years
Deviant Level One
Deviant Level Two
Deviant Level Three
What Causes Adolescents and Teenagers to Commit Sexual Offenses?
Treatment for Juveniles Who Commit Sexual Offenses
The Role of Schools in Addressing Problematic Sexual Behaviors
The Risk of Re-offense
A Hypothetical Case Study on Risk Assessment
Re-uniting Siblings When There Has Been a Sexual Offense
Investigative Challenges in Responding to Problematic Sexual Behaviors of Children
Investigative Challenges: Questioning Child Offenders
Investigative Challenges: Compliant Victims
Investigative Challenges: Peer Pressure
Key Points
Summary
Conclusion
Resources
Cross-References
References
34 The People in Your Neighborhood: Working with Sexual and Gender Minority Youth as Victims of Sexual Violence
Introduction
Sexual and Gender Minority Youth
Appreciating Terminology
Understanding the Challenges
Sexual and Gender Minority Youth at Increased Risk
The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse
Traumatic Sexualization
Betrayal
Stigmatization
Powerlessness
Considerations for Professionals
Respecting Sexual and Gender Minority Youth
Conducting Forensic Interviews with LGBTQ+ Children and Youth
Therapeutic Interventions
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Resources
Cross-References
Appendix A: Terminology
References
35 Adult Sex Offenders Against Children: Etiology, Typologies, Investigation, Treatment, Monitoring, and Recidivism
Introduction
The Etiology of Child Sexual Abuse
Typologies of Adult Male Child Sexual Abuse Offender
Female Offenders of Child Sexual Abuse
Prevalence of Female Offenders and Dynamics
Typologies of Women Who Sexually Offend
``Grooming´´ Behavior: How Offenders Manipulate Victims and Institutions
Investigating Sex Offenders
Motive Evidence Involving the Offender or Victim
Sexual Oddities
Photographs
Other Victims
Incriminating Statements
Overview of Adult Sex Offender Management and Treatment
Sex Offender Evaluations
Sex Offender Treatment
Management of Sexual Offenders in the Community
Managing Sex Offenders in a Religious Community
Sex Offender Registration and Notification (SORN)
Residence Restrictions and GPS Tracking
Civil Commitment
Recidivism
Recidivism Rates Are Likely to Underestimate Re-offenses
Methodological Factors Affecting Recidivism Rates
The Development of Sex Offender Policy in the United Sates
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
36 State-of-the-Art Measures: Contemporary Views on Risk Assessment of Sexually Abusive Youth
Risk Assessment Tools: Risk Prediction and Calibrated Risk Levels
Construction of Risk Assessment Tools for Sexually Abusive Youth (Adjudicated and Non-adjudicated)
Review of Risk Assessment Tools
Risk and Protective Factors: Assessing Different Types of Sexually Abusive Youth (Adjudicated and Non-adjudicated)
Children Ages 4 to 12 Years
Sexually Abusive Youth with Low Intellectual Functioning
Transgender Youth
Sexually Abusive Female Youth
Sexually Abusive Youth Who Are Inconspicuous
Discussion
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
37 The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children
Introduction
Current Definitions
Child Sex Trafficking
Child Pornography
Sex Tourism
Legislative Response to CSEC
Victim Characteristics
Relationship Factors
Family Conflict
Community Factors
Societal Pressures
Societal Norms
Gang Involvement
Societal Factors
Lack of Awareness
Sexualization of Children
Poverty
Effects of CSEC
Offender Characteristics
Child Sex Trafficking
Child Pornography
Child Sex Tourism
Cultural Considerations for Prevention and Intervention of CSEC
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
38 Abuse of Youth in Residential Settings/Institutions
Introduction
Outline of Contents
I. The Crisis of Institutional Child Abuse in Residential Settings
A. The Institution and Child Abuse
B. Legal Efforts Against Maltreatment in the USA: Mandatory Reporting
II. Non-correctional Institutional Environments for Youth
A. Overview
B. Maltreatment Risks and Realities
III. Correctional Environments
A. Overview
B. Sexual Victimization
C. Physical Victimization, Suicide, and Neglect
IV. Institutional Environments and Children with Disabilities
A. Overview
B. Sexual Victimization
C. Other Maltreatment Risks
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
39 Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse
Introduction
Increasing Scope and Severity of Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse
Characteristics of Online Offenders
Offender Grooming Tactics in the Digital Age
Survivor Perspectives: The Impact of Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse
Emerging Issues and Trends in Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse Cases
Sextortion
Online Gaming
Live Streaming
Going Dark
Virtual Reality
Remote Cloud Storage
Encryption
Key Points: Combatting Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
40 Genital Examination Techniques
Introduction
Medical History
Rapport Building
Anatomy
Female Genital Anatomy
Male Genital Anatomy
Female Pubertal Development
Male Pubertal Development
Medical Exam
Female Genital Exam
Male Genital Exam
Anal Exam
Acute Examinations
Photo Documentation
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
41 Normal Examination Findings and Variants
Introduction
Newborn Hymen
Hymenal Findings
Additional Female Genital Anatomical Variants
Normal Anal Variants
Misconceptions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
42 Acute Sexual Assault Evaluation of the Prepubertal Child
Introduction
The History
Account of Events
Additional History
The Physical Exam
The Anogenital Exam
The Female Anogenital Examination
The Male Anogenital Examination
Forensic Evidence Collection
Steps for Evidence Collection
Photodocumentation
Alternative Light Sources
Testing for Sexually Transmitted Infections
Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault
Findings and Interpretation
Forensic Evidence Interpretation
Understanding DNA Evidence
Spermatozoa and Seminal Fluid Markers
Trace Evidence Analysis
Clothing Analysis
Forensic Evidence in Prepubertal Children
The Use of Physical and Forensic Evidence in Criminal Proceedings
Medical Management
HIV Prophylaxis
Sexually Transmitted Infection Prophylaxis
Treatment of Injuries
Addressing Physical and Mental Health Concerns
Discharge Planning and Follow-Up Care
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
43 Abnormal Findings Diagnostic of Anogenital Trauma in Prepubertal Children
Introduction
The Medical Examination
Prevalence of Abnormal Findings Among Prepubertal Children
Mimickers of Genital Trauma
Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus
Urethral Prolapse
Lysis of Labial Adhesions
Accidental Genital Trauma
Congenital Findings
Examination Findings Diagnostic of Anogenital Trauma
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
STIs Diagnostic of Child Sexual Abuse
Chlamydia
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Sexually Transmitted Infections Highly Suspicious for Child Sexual Abuse
Trichomonas
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Suspicious for Child Sexual Abuse
Herpes
Condylomata Acuminata (Anogenital Warts)
Healing of Anogenital Traumatic Injuries
Follow-Up Examinations
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
44 Mimickers of Child Sexual Abuse
Introduction
Anatomic Variants and Congenital Conditions
Normal Anogenital Anatomy and Physiologic Processes Mistaken for Sexual Abuse Injuries
Normal Anogenital Anatomy Mistaken for Genital Injury
Normal Anogenital Hyperpigmentation
Normal Midline Variants
Normal Anogenital Physiology Mistaken for Injury from Trauma
Neonatal Menstruation
Perianal Venous Congestion
Anal Dilatation
Congenital Malformations Mimicking Sexual Abuse Injuries
Extravesicular Ureterocele
Failure of Midline Fusion
Diastasis Ani
Dermatoses and Anogenital Discharge
Anogenital Irritant Contact Dermatitis
Diaper Dermatitis, Granuloma Gluteale Infantum, Jacquet Erosive Diaper Dermatitis, and Perianal Pseudoverrucous Papules and No...
Anogenital Allergic Contact Dermatitis
Vulvar Atopic Dermatitis
Lichen Sclerosus
Anogenital Psoriasis
Vaginal Discharge and Foreign Bodies
Infections
Anogenital Infections not Caused by Sexual Contact
Anogenital Infections Caused by Both Sexual and Nonsexual Contact
Molluscum Contagiosum
Condyloma Acuminatum
Scabies
Medical Conditions
Medical Conditions Resulting in Displacement of Normal Anatomic Structures
Urethral Prolapse
Hemorrhoids
Rectal Prolapse
Nonabusive Vesicular and Ulcerative Conditions
Crohn´s disease
Behçet´s Disease
Gynecologic Neoplasias
Vascular and Lymphatic Conditions
Hidradenitis suppurativa
Enuresis and Encopresis
Trauma
Accidental Anogenital Trauma
Straddle Injuries
Impalement Injuries
High-Pressure Water Injuries
Crush Injuries
Motor Vehicle Injuries
Toilet Seat Penile Injuries
Iatrogenic Trauma
Hair Tourniquet Syndrome
Medical Conditions Resulting in Trauma
Lysed Labial Adhesions
Anal Fissures
Perianal Scar
Physical Abuse of the Genitals
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section VI: Emotional Abuse of Children and Adolescents
45 Psychological Maltreatment of Children: Influence Across Development
Introduction
Defining Psychological Maltreatment
Prevalence of Psychological Maltreatment
The Impact of Psychological Maltreatment on the Behavioral Health of Youth
Infancy and Early Childhood
Middle Childhood
Adolescence
Transition to Adulthood and Beyond
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
46 Psychological Maltreatment of Children and Youth: A Historical Perspective on the Right to Be Emotionally Safe
Introduction
An Ecological Perspective: Does X Cause Y? It Depends
What Is Child Maltreatment?
Negative Developmental Pathways
Why Do Some Children Develop Negative Social Cognition?
The Most Basic Human Rights of Children
A Model of Psychological Maltreatment
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
47 Bullying and Cyberbullying Throughout Adolescence
Introduction
Theory
Trauma
The Trauma-Informed Framework
Risk Factors
Gender
Developmental Differences
Disabilities
Social Skills Deficits
Sexual Orientation
Outcomes
Internalizing Outcomes
Externalizing Outcomes
Health-Related Outcomes
School-Related Outcomes
Long-Term Outcomes
Relation to Other Forms of Interpersonal Violence
Prevention and Intervention for Bullying Behavior
School Anti-bullying Policies
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
Social Emotional Learning (SEL)
The Combined Approach: PBIS and SEL
School Bullying Prevention and Intervention Programs
Cyberbullying Prevention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section VII: Family Violence and Teen Dating Violence
48 Mother-Child Attachment in Violent Contexts: Effect of Complex Trauma and Maternal Trauma History
Introduction
Outcomes of Witnessing Domestic Violence in Childhood
Emotion Regulation
Brain Development
Mediating Factors Identified in Literature: Early Childhood and Complex Trauma
Domestic Violence Assessment: Methodological Issues for Exposure in Early Childhood
Ecological System of Child Maltreatment
The Role of the Attachment Relationship in DV Contexts
Maternal History of Trauma
Parent-Child Interventions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
49 Correlations Among Childhood Abuse and Family Violence, Prevention, Assessment, and Treatment from a Trauma-Focused Perspec...
Introduction
Child Abuse
Family Violence
Family Violence Perspectives
Legislative Responses to Family Violence
Prevalence of Family Violence
Relationship of Child Abuse to Family Violence
Treatment Perspectives
Micro Interventions
Mezzo Interventions
Macro Interventions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
50 Implications of Maltreatment for Young Children
Introduction
Trauma and Attachment
Emotional, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Developmental Sequelae
Neurocognitive Deficits Associated with Child Maltreatment, Supported by Research, Include Delays and Deficits in Working Memo...
Implications of Child Maltreatment for Adult Functioning
Societal Implications
Resilience
Policy Implications
Summary and Conclusion
References
51 Missing and Exploited Youth
Introduction
Tracking the Problem
NISMART: Measuring the Problem
Missing Children Cases
Family Abductions
International Family Abductions
Reunifications in Family Abduction Cases
Runaway and Homeless Youth
Missing Benign
Missing Involuntary: Lost, Stranded, or Injured
State Resources
Discrepancy in Services
Nonfamily Abductions
Abductions with Different Motives
Infant Abductions
False Allegations
Key Points
Summary
Cross-References
References
52 Youths´ Exposure to Violence in the Family
Introduction
Theoretical Models Related to Exposure to Family Violence
Ecological Systems Theory
Social Learning Theory
Betrayal Trauma Theory
Coercive Family Process Theory
Stress Theory
Developmental Psychopathology Theory
Application of Theories
Intimate Partner Violence
Intimate Partner Violence Case Study
Family Violence Pathway to Teenage Dating Violence
Family Violence and Teen Dating Violence Case Study
Family Violence Among Siblings
Sibling Violence Case Study
Informal Kinship
Negative Peer Influence
Informal Kinship Case Studies with Negative Peer Influence
Case Two
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
53 Sibling Abuse of Other Children
Introduction
Historical Context
Identification and Assessment
Sibling Physical Abuse
Distinguishing Between Nonviolent Sibling Conflict and Physical Abuse
Identification of Sibling Sexual Abuse
Distinguishing Between Normative Sibling Sexual Contact and Abuse
Assessment of Sibling Abuse
Definitions
Sibling Physical Abuse [SPA]
Sibling Sexual Abuse [SSA]
Sibling Psychological Maltreatment [SPM]
Prevalence
Relationship to Other Forms of Family Violence
Fathers and Sibling Aggression
Couples and Sibling Aggression
Risk and Protective Factors
Cultural, Ethnic, and Gender Considerations
Gender Considerations
Research on Harmful Effects
Sibling Physical Abuse
Sibling Sexual Abuse
Sibling Psychological Maltreatment
Evidence-Based Treatment Strategies
Case Illustration
Current State of Research and Practice
Policy and Prevention
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
54 Siblicide: The Psychology of Sibling Homicide
Introduction
Prevalence of Siblicide
Offender and Victim Characteristics
Offense Characteristics: Causes, Context, Settings, and Weapons
Influence of Psychopathology
Substance Use
Influence of Developmental Disorders
Influence of Family Systems
Theoretical Perspectives
Implications of This Research: Intervention and Treatment
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
55 Teen Dating Violence and Stalking
Introduction
Definitions: Teen Dating Violence and Stalking
Prevalence of TDV and Stalking
Physical and Sexual TDV Prevalence
Psychological and Online TDV Prevalence
Stalking Prevalence
Group Differences in TDV Prevalence Rates
Risk Factors for TDV and Stalking
Risk Factors for Perpetration
Risk Factors for Victimization
Consequences of TDV and Stalking Victimization
Intervention Strategies for TDV and Stalking
Intervention Strategies for TDV
Intervention Strategies for Stalking
Recommendations for Future Research
Practical Implications for Students and Practitioners
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
56 Teen Dating Violence Policy: An Analysis of Teen Dating Violence Prevention Policy and Programming
Introduction
Teen Dating Violence Legislation
Community-Based Participatory Research
Focus on Individual Responsibility Is Limiting
What Do the End-Users Have to Say?
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
57 Child Survivors of Intimate Partner Homicide: Wraparound Intervention
Introduction
Domestic Violence Fatality Reviews and Child Survivors of Intimate Partner Homicide
The Research Informing the Emergence of ACASI
The ACASI Program
Challenges
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Section VIII: Cultural Issues Concerning Maltreatment of Children and Adolescents
58 Cultural Competence in the Field of Child Maltreatment
Introduction: Cultural Competence in Child Maltreatment Prevention and Intervention
Orienting Concepts
Cultural competence
Ethnic Culture
Race
Ecosystemic Framework
Poverty and Child Abuse
Treating Clients Fairly
Ethnocentrism and Lack of Cultural Humility
Bias
Confronting Stereotypes
Recognizing and Avoiding Microaggressions
Understanding Variations in Help-Seeking
Considering Issues of Language
Tips for Working with Diverse Families
Acquiring Demographic Information
Joining with All Members of the Family
Addressing Clients Properly
Conveying Respect
Reforming Systems
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
59 Recognizing and Responding to the Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse
Introduction
The Intersection Between Child Protection and Religion
Sexual Abuse
Physical Abuse
Withholding Medical Care on the Basis of Religious Belief
Torture
The Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse and Neglect
Positive and Negative Religious Influences Before, During, and After the Forensic Interview
Effective MDT Responses to the Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse
Coordinating Mental Health and Spiritual Care
Coordinating Medical and Spiritual Care
A Faith Leader or Chaplain on the MDT
Care in Action: A Promising Practice for Faith and Child Protection Collaborations
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
60 The Experience of Children and Families Involved with the Child Welfare System
Introduction
Conditions Leading to Involvement with the Child Welfare System
Experiences of Children and Families During an Encounter with the Child Welfare System
Services Provided During a Family´s Engagement with the Child Welfare System
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
61 Interpersonal Violence and Forced Displacement
Introduction
History and Current Context
Guidance for Working with Forcibly Displaced Populations
Key Legal Instruments
Vulnerable and Priority Groups
Other Forced Displacement Categories
Effects of Interpersonal and Other Violence on the Displaced
Principles of Reducing Interpersonal Violence
Displacement-Focused Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Studies
Good Practice Interventions: Gender-Based Violence Prevention
Levels of Psychosocial Distress
Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS)
Community Mobilization and Support
Psychological Considerations
Healthcare for People with Severe Mental Illness
Key Policy Recommendations
Summary, Limitations, and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
62 Child Maltreatment in Military Families: Risk and Protective Factors, and Family-Systems Interventions
Prevalence of Child Maltreatment in the Military Sector
Child Neglect
Child Physical Abuse
Child Emotional Abuse
Child Sexual Abuse
Limitations in Comparisons between Military and Civilian Sectors
General Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment
Military-Specific Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment
Deployment
Visible and Invisible Wounds
Limitations in Existing Deployment Research
Protective Factors: How to Promote Military Family Resilience
Military Initiatives Supporting Parents and Children
Evidence-Informed Interventions Developed for Military Families
Families OverComing under Stress (FOCUS)
After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT)
Strong Families Strong Forces
Other Evidence-Based Programs for Use with Military Families
Conclusions and Goals for the Future
Key Points
Cross-References
References
Section IX: Consequences and Interventions for the Maltreatment of Children and Adolescents
63 Neurobiological Consequences of Child Maltreatment
Introduction
Brain Development, Structure, Function, and Network Organization
Child Maltreatment and Brain Development
Brain Plasticity
Child Maltreatment and Dysregulated Stress Reactivity
Stress Response and Recovery
Cortisol
Inflammatory, Immune, and Electrophysiological Response
Child Maltreatment and Brain Structure and Functionality
Structural Brain Changes
Functional Brain Changes
Child Maltreatment and Behavioral Epigenetics
DNA Methylation (DNAm)
Telomere Shortening and Accelerated Biological Aging
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
64 The Intersection of Trauma and Substance Use in Adolescent Populations
Introduction
Prevalence and Types of Trauma Exposure Experienced in Adolescence
Traumatic Stress Exposure: Signs and Symptoms in Adolescents
Prevalence and Type of Substance Use Experienced in Adolescence
Substance Use: Signs and Symptoms in Adolescents
Interrelation of Trauma and Substance Use in Adolescents
Co-occurrence of Substance Use Difficulties and Trauma Exposure
A Behavioral Approach to Understanding the Interrelation of Substance Use and Trauma Exposure
Screening and Assessment Considerations for Substance Use Difficulties in Youth Exposed to Trauma
Biological-Based Tests
Screening Instruments
Multi-scale Questionnaires
Structured and Semi-structured Interviews
Treatment Considerations of Co-occurring Substance Use Difficulties and Traumatic Stress Symptoms
Integrating Treatment for Substance Use Difficulties and Traumatic Stress Symptoms
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
65 Forensic Interviewing
Introduction
The Rise of Children´s Advocacy Centers
The Leadership Role of the National Institute on Child Health and Human Development (NICHD): Section on Social and Emotional D...
The Interdisciplinary Consensus Statement
The Development of the NICHD Investigative Interview Protocol
The Proliferation of Forensic Interview Protocols and Guidelines
The CornerHouse Model
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Model
RADAR
The Ten Step Investigative Interview
America Professional Society on the Abuse of Children´s Pioneering Role
National Children´s Advocacy Center´s Child Forensic Interview Structure
Child Forensic Interviewing: Best Practices
Number of Interviews
Who Are Forensic Interviewers?
Questions and Probes Used in Forensic Interviews
Uses of Media in Forensic Interviews
Documenting Forensic Interviews
Issues of Quality Control in Forensic Interviewing
The Forensic Interview in the Broader Context of Investigation
Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
66 Linking Trauma-Informed Screening and Assessment Practices Across Child-Serving Systems
Introduction
Essential Components of Trauma-Informed Screening
Structured Process
Creating Emotional Safety
Family Engagement
Addressing Secondary Traumatic Stress
Cultural Responsiveness
Developmental Considerations
Data-Driven Decision-Making
Determining Which Trauma-Informed Screening Tool Is Best for Your Agency
Administration of Trauma-Informed Screening Tools
Commonly Used Screening Tools
Applying a Complex Trauma Framework in the Context of Trauma-Informed Screening and Assessment
Screening for Complex Trauma: Information for Child-Serving Professionals
Linking Screening to Assessment and Diagnosis with a Complex Trauma Framework
Assessment of Complex Trauma by Mental Health Professionals
General Guidelines for the Assessment of Complex Trauma
The Effective Implementation of the Trauma-Informed Screening and Assessment Processes
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
67 Assessing Causes of Children´s Parent Rejection in Child Custody Cases: Differentiating Parental Alienation from Child Sexu...
Introduction
Evidence That Alienation Is Over-Valued in Child Custody Cases
Use of Alienation Allegations
Power of Alienation Allegations
Multidimensional Assessment of Causes of Parent Rejection in Child Custody Cases with CSA, Psychological Maltreatment, Adverse...
Overview of the Multidimensional Assessment Protocol
Assessment of Children´s CSA Statements
Assessment of Psychological Maltreatment
Assessment of Adverse Parenting
Assessment of Alienation
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
68 Treatment Considerations for Youth Exposed to Interpersonal Violence
Introduction
Prevalence of Interpersonal Violence
Importance of Psychosocial Treatment
Comprehensive Assessment
Factors to Consider in Treatment Planning
Barriers to Treatment
Provider Training
Youth and Family Characteristics
Caregiver Involvement
Types of Treatments Available
Core Components
Treatment-Specific Considerations
Early Intervention
Highlighted Treatments
Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT)
Child Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)
Structured Psychotherapy for Adolescents Responding to Chronic Stress (SPARCS)
Key Points
Summary
Cross-References
References
69 Mental Health and Healthcare System Responses to Adolescent Maltreatment
Introduction
How Risks and Effects of Adolescent Maltreatment Are Conveyed
Biological Components of Adolescent Maltreatment
Psychosocial Components of Adolescent Maltreatment
Trauma-Informed Principles
Realize the Widespread Impact of Trauma and Potential Paths for Recovery
Recognize Signs and Symptoms
Respond by Fully Integrating Knowledge about Trauma into Policies, Procedures, and Practices
Patient/Client-Related Policies
Staff-Related Policies
Organization-Related Policies
Respond with Effective Treatment
Resist Retraumatization
Integration of Healthcare and Mental Health Systems
Background and Barriers
Framework for Integrated Care
Coordinated Care
Co-located Care
Integrated Care
Special Considerations
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
70 The Impact of Neighborhood-Based Interventions on Reducing Child Maltreatment
Introduction
Defining Neighborhood Programs Within a Socio-ecological Approach
Evidence of Neighborhood-Based Treatments in Preventing Child Maltreatment
Targeting Family- and Community-Level Risks for Child Maltreatment
Examples of Current Programs and Policies
Barriers to Service
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section X: Recognizing and Responding to Maltreatment of Children and Adolescents
71 Child Maltreatment: Mandated Reporting
Introduction
Recognition of Child Maltreatment and the Origins of Mandated Reporting
Mandatory Reporting Legislation
Universal Mandated Reporting
Ethics of Mandated Reporting
Barriers to Reporting Among Professional Reporters
Ambiguity of Evidence of Certain Types of Maltreatment
Struggling with Identifying Child Maltreatment or with the Reporting Process
Fear of Consequences of Reporting
Lack of Institutional Support
Concerns about Negative Consequences for Children and Families
Perceptions of the Efficacy of Child Protective Services
Training for Mandated Reporting
Online Instruction and Training
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mandated Reporting
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
72 Child Welfare System: Structure, Functions, and Best Practices
Introduction
The History of Public Child Welfare Services Agencies
The Goals of Child Welfare Services
The Structure of Child Welfare Services
Steps in the Child Welfare Services Response
Reporting
Screening
Investigation
Substantiation
Alternative Response
Ongoing Services
Child Placement
Likelihood of Outcomes of CWS Involvement
How Child Welfare Services Helps Intact Families
Building Capacity for Self-Help
Engaging in Help-Seeking
How Child Welfare Services Helps When Children Are Placed Out-of-Home
Casework When Children Are in Out-of-Home Care
Family Search
Working Toward Reunification
Permanency Planning
Research on the Impact of Child Welfare Services
Evidence-Based Practice in Child Welfare Services
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Public Child Welfare Services Agencies Are a Necessary Part of Our Society
More Needs to Be Learned About How to Help Families Involved with CWS
Child Protection Is a Community Responsibility
Reason for Optimism About Child Welfare Services
Cross-References
References
73 The Child Welfare System: Problems, Controversies, and Future Directions
Introduction
Overview of the Child Welfare System in Brief
History of the Child Welfare System
The Development of the Child Welfare System
Roots of Racial Disparity in the Child Welfare System
Relevant Legislative Foci of the Child Welfare System
Discussion
Problems and Controversies
Future Directions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
74 The Criminal Justice Response to Child and Youth Victimization
Introduction
Children´s and Adolescents´ Risk of Experiencing Criminal Interpersonal Violence
The Juvenile Victim Justice System
Reporting to Police
Factors Affecting Reporting to Police
Investigation
The Multidisciplinary Team
Children´s Advocacy Centers
Prosecution
Factors Predicting Prosecution
Suspect Confession
Evidence
Child Age and Sex
Emotions, Mental Health, and Parental Support
Perpetrator Characteristics
Case Characteristics
CACs and SART Teams and Prosecution
Child Victims´ Testimony
The Effect of Prosecution on Child Victims
Restorative Justice
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
75 The Law and Policy of Child Maltreatment
Introduction
Overview: Two Systems Respond
Civil Child Protection - Constitutional Framework
Federalism - The Role of States in Child Protection
The Role of Federal Statutes
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act
Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act
Multiethnic Placement Act and the Interethnic Placement Provisions
Adoption and Safe Families Act
Family First Prevention Services Act
Criminal Law´s Response to Child Maltreatment
Criminal Prosecution of Child Maltreatment - Constitutional Framework
Prosecutorial Discretion
Constitutional Protections for Defendants
First Amendment
The Fifth Amendment
The Sixth Amendment
The Eighth Amendment
Victim´s Rights
Federal Funding
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
76 Collecting Child Victimization Information from Youth and Parents: Ethical and Methodological Considerations
Ethical Considerations
Can Children Be Harmed by Asking About Child Abuse and Exposure to Violence?
Risk of Generating Participant Distress
Risk of Retaliation from a Third Party
General Principles for Minimizing the Risks of Survey Participation
Introducing the Survey
Resources to Minimize Distress
Steps to Minimize Risk of Retaliation and Informational or Social Risks
Consent Procedures When Collecting Sensitive Data on Children and Youth
What Is Involved in Obtaining Informed Consent?
Consent Procedures and Mandatory Reporting of Research Participants
Do Disclosures Drop When Consent Forms Mention Mandatory Reporting or Limited Confidentiality?
Methodological Considerations
Nonresponse and Data Quality in Child Victimization Surveys
Unit-Level Nonresponse: Refusals and Noncontacts
Survey Mode and Disclosure of Sensitive Information
Using Incentives in Child Victimization Research
Issues of Victimization Recall and Data Quality
Utilizing Caregiver Proxy Reports of Violence Exposure among Younger Children
Summary and Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
77 Responding to Child Abuse During a Pandemic
Introduction
Educate Mandated Reporters About Their Role of Protecting Children During the Pandemic
Educate the Public to Be on the Lookout for Signs of Abuse
Encourage Students to Look Out for One Another
Make a List of At-Risk Children and Then Develop a Plan to Check on Them
Develop Safety Plans and Affirmative Resources for LGBTQIA+ Youth
CPS Workers Must Adjust Case and Safety Plans for Children
Recognize that Children May Find Different Ways to Communicate Abuse
Accelerate Victim Services and Court Preparation
Work with Youth-Serving Organizations to Modify Their Policies During the Pandemic
Continue with Safety Checks
Resist Defense Attorney Initiatives that Increase the Risk of Abuse
Understand Enhanced Risks to Online Safety and Act Accordingly
Balance the Risk of a Health Threat with the Risk of Child Abuse
Prepare for the Unique Challenges Facing Rural Communities
Rely on Your MDT and the CAC Model
Consider the Mechanics of Safely Conducting Forensic Interviews and Witness Preparation in the COVID-19 Era
Poly-victimization Screening
Consider the Deterrent Utility of Proactive Operations
Recognize Shifting, Safety-Focused Trends in Evidence Collection, Submission, and Processing
Ensure Relevant MDT Members Have Adequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Use Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment and Follow Hygienic Best Practices
Develop a Vicarious Trauma Plan for the MDT
Recognize the Value of Spiritual Care for Child Abuse Victims and Child Protection Professionals
Develop Plans to Respond to Abuse Once the Pandemic Subsides
Turn the MDTs Short-Term Plans into Long-Term Innovations
Reach Out for Assistance
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XI: Community Violence and Abuse: Victimization and Perpetration
78 Community Violence Overview: Guiding Principles, Critical Issues, and Prevention and Intervention Strategies
Introduction: What Is Community Violence?
Available Data to Study Community Violence
Sociodemographic and Geographic Characteristics Associated with Community Violence
Risk and Protective Factors
Prevention and Intervention Strategies
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
79 Commonalities and Overlap Between Victims and Offenders
Introduction
The Role of Routine Activity and Lifestyles in the Victim-Offender Overlap
The Cycle of Violence
Developmental and Longitudinal Examinations of the Victim-Offender Overlap
Gender, Intimate Partner Violence, and the Victim-Offender Overlap
What Does It Mean? Policy Implications Based on the Victim-Offender Overlap
The Future Study of the Victim-Offender Overlap
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
80 Microaggressions and Implicit Biases: Rooted in Structural Racism and Systemic Oppression
Introduction
Implicit Bias as a Platform for Microaggressions
Microaggressions as Manifestations of Structural Oppression
Microaggressions and Structural Racism in the Criminal Justice System
Microaggressions and Structural Racism in School and Educational Systems
Microaggressions and Structural Racism in the Workplace
Microaggressions and Structural Racism in Neighborhoods and Communities
Societal Impact of Microaggressions and Implicit Bias
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
81 Violence in Schools
Violent Crimes
Nonfatal Violence
Aggression in Schools
Harassment
Prevention Strategies
Security Measures
Disciplinary Practices
Threat Assessment
School Climate Improvement Programs
Mental Health Services
Policy Recommendations
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
82 Empowerment Strategies and Youth Community Organizing
Introduction
Defining Community Violence
The Youth Perspective: What is Violence?
The Prevalence of Youth Community Violence Exposure
Feeling Unsafe: Perception of Violence Matters
Repercussions of CVE
Youth as Agents of Change
Positive Youth Development, Empowerment Theory, and Community Organizing
Positive Youth Development
Empowerment Theory
Community Organizing
Merging Perspectives: Youth Community Organizing
Models of Youth Community Organizing
Youth Community Organizing Outcomes
Social-Emotional
Cognitive and Academic
Identity
Civic and Political
Behavioral
Pathways to Long-Term Outcomes
Key Factors in Producing Positive Outcomes
Opportunity Structure
Youth-Adult Partnership
Fostering Youth Empowerment
Current Grassroots Movements
Never Again MSD
Black Lives Matter
Other Local and Global Movements
Recommendations for Research, Practice, and Policy
Future Directions for Research
Future Directions for Practice and Policy
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
83 Hate Crimes: A Special Category of Victimization
An Introduction to Hate Crime
Historical Context
Legislation
Data Collection and Measurement
Comparisons Between UCR/NIBRS and NCVS
Patterns and Trends
How Much Hate Crime Is There?
Underreporting of Hate Crimes
Victim Reporting
Police Misclassification of Crimes
Law Enforcement Participation in Hate Crime Reporting
Bias Motivation
Specific Bias Types
Hate Debate
Perpetrators of Hate Crimes
Offender Motivation
Fighting/Preventing Hate
Formal Hate Crime Prevention
Informal Prevention Methods
The Uniqueness of Hate Crime
Future Research and Policy Response
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Web Resources
84 Taking Stock of Gang Violence: An Overview of the Literature
Introduction
Defining Gang Violence
Situating Violence in Gang Life
Joining a Gang and Gang Member Violent Victimization
Violent Victimization of Female Members
Trends in Gang Violence
Temporal Patterns in Gang Violence
The Spatial and Social Distribution of Gang Violence
Facilitating Violence with Technology
Interventions Aimed at Reducing Gang Violence
Gang Activity Prevention
Gang Activity Suppression
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
85 Gang Violence: Examining Ecological, Cultural, Social Psychological, and Psychological Factors Across the Life Course
Introduction
An Overview of Violence and Gang Membership Over the Life Course
Ecological Context of Gang Violence
Gang Culture and Violence
Social Psychological Approaches to Gang Violence
Psychological Approaches to Gang Violence
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
86 The Juvenile Justice Response to Violence
Introduction
The Scale of Youth Violence
The Juvenile Court´s Role in Violence Prevention
Juvenile Justice Response to Youth Violence
Effective Responses to Youth Violence
Public Health Approach: Changing Social Norms with Credible Messengers
Other Models
Law Enforcement Approach: Focused Deterrence
Social Services Approach: Individualized Therapies and Supports
Cognitive Behavioral Interventions
Family Treatment
Trauma-Informed Practice
Summary and Conclusion
References
87 Girls in Juvenile Justice
Introduction
Background
Intersectionality
Trends and Contributing Factors to Girls in Juvenile Justice
Mental Health and Substance Abuse
Interpersonal, Family, and Community Violence
Sexual Abuse
Sexual Assault in Justice Facilities
Human Trafficking and Sex Trafficking
Child Abuse, Maltreatment, Neglect, and Delinquency: Crossover Youth
Trauma
Explicit and Implicit Bias
Evidence-Based Recommendations
Improve Gender- and Culturally Responsive Programming
Recognize Intersectionality for All Youthful Offenders and Reduce Group Disparities
Increase Trauma-Informed Services
Abolish Prostitution-Related Offenses for Minors
Increase Diversion Opportunities
Reduce Reliance on Detention (Especially for Status and Non-violent Offenders)
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
88 Sex and Labor Trafficking: Trauma-Informed Themes Toward a Social Justice Approach
Introduction
Prevalence
Scope
Risk Factors and Vulnerability
Sociocultural Factors
Psychosocial Factors
Identification and Referral
Health Implications
Pre-trafficking Phase or Recruitment Stage
Trafficking Phase or Exploitation Stage
Post-trafficking Phase or Integration/Reintegration Stage
Trauma Responses and Patterns
Clinical Treatment and Intervention
Current Responses and Recommendations
Policy and Education
Multilevel Trauma-Informed Services
Prevention
Survivor Engagement and Leadership
Future Directions
Summary and Conclusions
Key Points
Cross-References
References
89 Sexual and Gender-Based Violence as Warfare
Introduction
History and the Current State
Why Do Wars Breed Rape?
Defining War Rape
War Rape
Rape as Genocide
Rape as Torture
How Prevalent Is SGBV in the Context of War, Armed Conflict, and Forced Migration?
Vulnerable Groups
Women and Children
Men
Pregnancy and Children Born Out of Rape
Child Soldiers
Refugees
Physical, Psychological, and Social Impact of War Rape
Societal Impact
Mental Health and Psychosocial Supports for Survivors of SGBV
Grassroots Community Initiatives
``City of Joy´´
``Living Peace´´
MHPSS for Refugees, Survivors of Sexual Violence
Self-Care
Other Considerations and Controversies
Potentially Harmful Practices
Disproportionate Attention Given to One Group
MHPSS for Perpetrators
Unintended Consequences of Helping Interventions
Birth Control
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XII: Definitions, Prevalence, Terms, and Tactics for Intimate Partner Violence
90 Introduction to the Intimate Partner Violence Section: History, Progress, and Lessons Learned
Historical Perspective
IPV Part: Organizational Structure and Emerging Themes
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
91 Intimate Partner Violence: Terms, Forms, and Typologies
Introduction
Key Terms
Historical Usage
Current Usage
Foundational Criteria for Partner Maltreatment
Harm Criterion
Acts (and Omissions)
Impacts
Exclusions
Definitions in Key Diagnostic/Classification Systems
Partner Physical Abuse
Partner Psychological Abuse
Partner Sexual Abuse
Partner Neglect
Legal Definitions
US Legal Definitions
International Legal Definitions
Severity
Terms Used in Typologies and Treatment
Who Perpetrates IPV (Typologies)
Theories of IPV
Terms Common to IPV Treatment
Summary and Conclusion
References
92 Cyber Abuse in Romantic Relationships
Introduction
Types of Cyber Abuse That Occur Within Romantic Relationships
Emotional/Psychological Cyber Abuse
Ignoring/Exclusion
Cyber Sexual Abuse
Intrusion/Monitoring/Stalking Behaviors
Risk Factors
Hostile Sexism
Substance Use
Bullying
Technology Use
Sexual Risk Behaviors
Anxious Attachment
Assessment Methods and Measurement Issues Regarding Cyber Abuse
Measures Assessing Nonsexual Forms of Cyber Abuse
Measures Assessing Sexual and Nonsexual Forms of Cyber Abuse
Psychometric Properties and Limitations of Existing Measures of Cyber Abuse
Cyber Abuse Prevention
Suggestions for Potential Victims, Parents, and Clinicians
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
93 Advances in Understanding and Addressing the Link Between Pet Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Summary of the Link Between Pet Abuse and IPV
Current Research Trends
Severity of Pet Abuse and Severity of Domestic Violence
The Decision-Making Process of Pet-Owning Domestic Violence Victims Seeking Safety
Questions Asked About Pets at Domestic Violence Intake and Crisis Centers
Typologies of Offenders
Policy Responses
Animal Cruelty Laws
Including Pets on Orders of Protection
Designating Animal Abuse as a Form of Domestic Violence
Added Penalties for Exposing Children to Animal Cruelty
Federal Action: Farm Bill/Pet and Women Safety Act
Federal Action: Collection of Animal Cruelty Crime Data by the FBI
Cross-Reporting and Cross-Training
Restricting Gun Possession
Next Steps
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
94 Intimate Partner Violence and Intimate Partner Stalking
The Intersection Between Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence
Stalking Prevalence
Defining Stalking
Intimate Partner Stalking
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Section XIII: Theories and Key Factors for Intimate Partner Violence
95 Feminist Perspectives of Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (IPV/A)
Introduction
The Development of Feminist Perspectives
Patriarchy
Types of Feminist Perspectives
Radical Feminism
Liberal Feminism
Marxist Feminism and Socialist Feminism
Postmodern Feminism
The Women´s Movement
Women´s Movement: First Wave (1830s-Early 1900s)
Women´s Movement: Second Wave (1960s-1980s)
Women´s Movement: Third Wave (1990s-Present)
Feminist Perspectives and Race
Intersectionality
More Intersectional Feminist Perspectives
Masculinities and IPV/A
Feminist Theorizing About IPV/A
Cycle of Violence
Learned Helplessness and Battered Women Syndrome
Patriarchy and Coercive Control
Summary
Directions for Future Research
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
96 Masculinity and Violence Against Women from a Social-Ecological Perspective: Implications for Prevention
Introduction
Measuring Masculinity
Individual Level of Social Ecology
Community and Societal Levels of Social Ecology
Association Between Masculinity and IPV/SV
Individual and Relational Levels of the Social Ecology
Community and Societal Levels of the Social Ecology
Prevention Approaches
Individual and Relational Levels of the Social Ecology
Community and Societal Levels of the Social Ecology
Implications for Prevention and Future Directions
Caveats
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
97 Psychological Theories of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Theoretical Overview
Cognitive-Behavioral Models
Trauma-Informed Models of IPV
Psychopathology-Stress Models of IPV
The I3 Model: A Multifactorial Psychological Theory of IPV Perpetration
Clinical Implications
Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
98 Substance Use and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration
Introduction
Previous Literature Reviews
Theoretical Frameworks
Metatheoretical Approach: The Instigating-Impelling-Inhibiting (``I3´´) Model
Clinical Implications
Future Research
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
99 Intimate Partner Violence Across the Lifespan: Dyadic Theory and Risk and Protective Factors
Introduction
Theoretical Approaches
Typological Approaches
Dyadic Theoretical Approaches
Theory Related to the Association Between Age and Aggression
Reviews of Risk Factors
Early Reviews on Risk Factors
Reviews of Risk Factors in the Last Decade
Risk Factor Summary from Capaldi et al. (2012)
Demographic Risk Factors and the Role of Age
Exposure to Interparent IPV and Experience of Maltreatment in Childhood
Protective Family Factors
Social Risk Factors
Behavioral Risk Factors
Impulsivity, Anger, Hostility, and Traumatic Brain Injury
Substance Use
Relationship Factors
Gender Issues
Other Recent Reviews
Cumulative and Compounded Risk Factors
Assortative Partnering
Do Risk Factors Differ by Severity of Violence?
Recent Work Testing the DDS Model
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Implications for Future Research
Prevention Implications
Cross-References
References
100 Clarifying the Complex Roles of Power and Control in Advancing Theories of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Power and Control in the Context of IPV
Traditional Definitions of Power
Marital Power Refined
Family Violence Studies of Marital Power and IPV
Emerging Theories of Power and IPV
Internal Power and IPV
Coercive Control and IPV
Defining Coercive Control
Coercive Control and Abuse
Measuring Coercive Control
Coercive Control and IPV
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
References
101 Relation Between Exposure to Parental Intimate Partner Violence During Childhood and Children´s Functioning
Introduction
Psychological/Emotional/Behavioral
Social
Cognitive/Intellectual/Academic
Physiological/Physical
Sleep
Moderators
Individual-Level Moderators
Relationship-Level Moderators
Implications for Research, Practice, and Policy
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
102 Intergenerational Transmission of Intimate Partner Violence: Summary and Current Research on Processes of Transmission
Introduction
What Is the Intergenerational Transmission of Violence?
What Is the Evidence for Intergenerational Transmission of IPV?
Theories of Intergenerational Transmission of IPV: Starting Points
New Theoretical Models: Indirect Transmission of IPV
Which Mechanisms of Transmission Are Most Promising?
Three Cutting-Edge Mechanisms of Transmission
Perinatal Trauma as an Indirect Mechanism of IPV Transmission
Key Concepts
Evidence for the Role of Distal Maternal Antenatal Trauma History in IPV Transmission
Evidence for Perinatal Stress Associated with IPV as a Mechanism of Violence Transmission
Neurobiological Mechanisms of Intergenerational IPV Risk Transmission
Key Concepts
Evidence for Neurobiological Mechanisms of Transmission
Developmental Psychopathology
Key Concepts
Evidence for Developmental Psychopathology as a Mechanism of Violence Transmission
Future Research Directions
Clinical Implications for Prevention
Summary and Conclusions
Key Points
Cross-References
References
103 Neuropsychological and Psychophysiological Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Neuropsychological Findings
IPV Perpetrators
Clinical Implications
IPV Victims
Structural Brain Changes
PTSD Studies and Cognitive Effects
Cardiovascular Measures of Autonomic Nervous System Activity
The Relation Between Heart Rate Reactivity, Emotionally Aggressive Behavior, and General Violence in Batterers
Failure to Replicate Gottman et al.´s (1995) Findings
The Autonomic Nervous System: Measuring Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activity
Heart Rate
Physiological Measures of Sympathetic Activity: Skin Conductance (SC) and Pre-ejection Period (PEP)
Physiological Measures of Parasympathetic Activity: Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia
Neuroendocrine System, Blood Sugar Regulation, and Immune Functioning Within IPV Perpetration
Blood Sugar Regulation
Immune Functioning
Physiological Correlates Among IPV Victims
Further Directions and Conclusion: Psychophysiological Correlates of IPV Perpetrators and Survivors
Clinical Implications
Key Points
Cross-References
References
Section XIV: Intersectionality with Respect to Intimate Partner Violence
104 Inclusion and Exclusion: Intersectionality and Gender-Based Violence
Introduction
Origins
Definitional Clarity and Terms
Patriarchy, Intimate Partner Violence: Inclusions and Exclusions
Why Is Intersectionality Necessary in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence?
How to ``Do´´ Intersectional Casework and Advocacy
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
105 Intersectionality and Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse: IPV and People with Disabilities
Introduction
Risk Factors/Vulnerability
Isolation
Perpetrators
Dependency
Lack of Identification
System and Cultural Barriers
Resilience Factors
Intersecting Identities
Proposed Frameworks for Cultural Relevance
Trauma-Informed Care
Intersectionality
Bernie´s Story: Intersections of Race, Sexual Orientation, Gender Expression, Substance Use, and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Bernie´s Story
Contextual Considerations for Case Analysis
Case Analysis Using a Culturally Responsive, Trauma-Informed, Intersectional Framework
Micro/Mezzo/Macro Level Recommendations for Practitioners, Advocates, and Researchers/Scholars
Recommendations for Direct Practice
Recommendations for Community and Organizational Level Practice
Recommendations for Policy Advocacy
Future Research Recommendations
Key Points and Conclusion
Relevance to National Plan to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan
Cross-References
References
106 Intimate Partner Abuse in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Queer, Transgender and Two-Spirit (LGBQ/T and TS) Communities
Introduction
A Note on Language
Experiences of Multiple Traumas in the Lives of LGBQ/T and Two-Spirit Individuals and Communities
Prevalence Data
Rates of Intimate Partner Violence in LGBQ/T Communities
Prevalence of Partner Abuse in LGBQ/T Immigrant and Refugee Communities
Prevalence of Partner Abuse in Black LGBQ/T and Same-Gender Loving Communities
Prevalence of Partner Abuse in Two-Spirit Communities
Dynamics of Partner Abuse in LGBQ/T Communities
Dynamics of Partner Abuse Specific to Transgender Communities
Cultural Context of Partner Abuse in LGBQ/T Immigrant and Refugee Communities
Cultural Context of Abuse in Two-Spirit Communities
Cultural Context of Partner Abuse in Black LGBQ/T and Same-Gender Loving Communities
Barriers for LGBQ/T Survivors Seeking Help
The Lack of Refuge in Sanctuary Systems for Transgender and Gender Non-conforming Individuals
Culturally Specific Practices and Innovations in LGBQ/T and Two-Spirit Programs and Communities
Holistic, Trauma-Responsive Practices for Responding to LGBQ/T Survivors of IPV
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
107 Intimate Partner Violence in Tribal Communities: Sovereignty, Self-Determination, and Framing
Introduction
Critical Definitions
``Indian´´
``Indian Country´´
Overview
The Experience of Violence for American Indians and Alaska Natives
Root Causes of Violence
The Effect of Intimate Partner Violence and Related Crime on Tribal Communities
Tribal Sovereignty
Legal Barriers to Safety for AI/AN Survivors of Violence
Jurisdictional Issues
Criminal Jurisdiction Issues
The Indian Country Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. § 1152)
Major Crimes Act (1885)
Public Law 280 (18 U.S.C. § 1162 )
Oliphant v. Suquamish
The Tribal Law and Order Act
The Violence Against Women Act
Civil Jurisdiction Issues
Civil Jurisdiction in Indian Country Generally
Tribal Protection Orders and Enforcement Issues
Special Jurisdictional Issues Related to Region
Alaska
Maine
Additional Intersectional Issues Affecting AI/AN People
Historical Trauma
Housing
Substance Abuse and Alcoholism
Child Welfare Issues
Poverty
Geographic Remoteness
Lack of Law Enforcement Resources
Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls
Severe Lack of Tribally Created or Native Run Victim Services
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
108 How Domestic Violence Impacts Immigrant Victims
Introduction
Abuser-Generated Risks
Physical and Sexual Abuse
Emotional Abuse
Community-Generated Risks
Cultural and Religious Concerns
Language Barriers
System-Generated Risks
Lack of Familiarity with the US Legal System and Supportive Services
Discrimination
Economic Barriers
Children and Child Custody
Immigration Status
Immigration Legal Protections
Background
Battered Spouse Waiver
VAWA Self-Petition
Cancellation of Removal Proceedings Under VAWA
U Visas for Victims of Crime
T Visas for Victims of Human Trafficking
Work Authorization for Abused Spouses of A, E (iii), G, and H Visa Holders
Asylum
Certain Limits on Immigration Enforcement Related to Abuse
Accessibility of Immigration Protections
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
109 Intimate Partner Violence Among Latina Survivors: Unique Considerations, Strategies, and Opportunities
Introduction
Prevalence of IPV Among Latinas
Consequences of IPV Exposure
Barriers to Care
Immigration
Lack of Economic Security
Language Access
Help-Seeking Patterns and Strategies
Intervention Programs and Their Efficacy with Latina Survivors
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
110 Gender-Based Violence and Culturally Specific Advocacy in Asian and Pacific Islander Communities
Introduction
Demographics
Analyzing Root Causes
Gender Oppression over the Life Course
Culture: Socio-cultural, Community, and System Norms
Patriarchy and Power
Domestic Violence in API Communities in the USA
Scope of the Problem
Vulnerabilities and Barriers
Differing Dynamics of Domestic Violence
Other Domestic Violence Trends in API Contexts
Culturally Specific Intervention: A-Z Advocacy Model for API Survivors
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
111 The Intersectionality of Intimate Partner Violence in the Black Community
Introduction
Intersecting Identities
Ethnic Identity
Black Caribbeans
African Immigrants
Socioeconomic Status
Age
Sexual Orientation
Gender Identity
Multiple Forms of Victimization
Intimate Partner Violence
Nonfatal Strangulation
Domestic Homicide
Reproductive Coercion
Historical Trauma
Structural Violence
Racial Discrimination
Concentrated Neighborhood Disadvantage
Homelessness
Institutional Violence
Community Violence
Multiple Vulnerabilities
Physical Health Problems
Physical Injury
Physical Health Problems
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Mental Health Problems
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Depression
Substance Use/Abuse
Culturally Specific Practices
The Asha Project/Asha Family Services: Milwaukee, Wisconsin
The Grady Nia Project in Atlanta, Georgia
Culturally Based Resources
Key Points
Conclusion
Culturally Based Resources
Recommended Culturally Based Programs
Recommended Technical Assistance Providers
Additional Resources Recommended
Cross-References
References
Section XV: Prevention of Intimate Partner Violence
112 Best Available Evidence for Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Across the Life Span
Introduction
Strategies for Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Across the Life Span
Key Points
Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions
Cross-References
References
113 The Danger Assessment: An Instrument for the Prevention of Intimate Partner Homicide
Intimate Partner Homicide
Assessing Risk for Intimate Partner Homicide
Risk Factors for IPV Re-assault and IPH Perpetration
The Danger Assessment
Development of the Danger Assessment
The Psychometric Properties of the Danger Assessment
Extensions of the Danger Assessment
The Danger Assessment-5 (DA-5)
The Lethality Screen
The Danger Assessment for Law Enforcement (DA-LE)
The Danger Assessment for Immigrant Women (DA-I)
The Danger Assessment-Circle (DA-Circle)
The Danger Assessment-Revised (DA-R)
The Danger Assessment as a Tool for Safety Planning
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
114 Community-Informed Risk Assessment in Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse Cases: Origins, Development, and Deployment
Introduction
Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (IPV/A)
Risk Assessment in IPV/A Cases
Historical Background
Research and Science on IPV/A Risk Assessment
Field Operationalization
Limitations and Concerns
The Community Informed Risk Assessment (CIRA) Concept in Arizona
Historical Background
Operational Philosophy and Practice
The APRAIS Tool and Protocol
Relationship to the Rule of Law
Early Outcomes and Challenges
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
115 Firearms, Domestic Violence, and Dating Violence: Abusers´ Use of Firearms Violence to Exert Coercive Control and Commit I...
Introduction
The Impact of Federal and State Laws in Preventing and Responding to DV-Related Firearms Violence
Second Amendment Limitations
Federal Firearms Law: Prohibitors
Domestic Violence Protection Order Prohibitor
Misdemeanor Crime of Domestic Violence Prohibitor
The Background Check System and Enforcement of Federal Firearms Laws
Policy Recommendations
Improving Background Checks
Misdemeanor Crimes of Domestic Violence
Domestic Violence Protective Orders
The Importance of State Laws
Strengthening Federal, State, Tribal, and local laws
Strengthening Enforcement
Other Recommendations
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XVI: Survivors, Economic, and Justice System Responses to Intimate Partner Violence
116 Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship
Introduction
Factors Related to Leaving
Marginalized Groups
Children Present Extra Barriers
Psychological Well-Being Worsens for Some After Separation
High Status Adds Obstacles
Traditional Religious and Family Norms
Leaving as a Process
Applications of Theory
``Helpers´´ Who Don´t Help
Increasing Motivation to Leave
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
117 Economic Considerations of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Economic Theories of Household Bargaining
Formal Bargaining Models
A Simple Bargaining Model of IPV
Limitations to Formal Bargaining Models
Economic Factors as Risk or Protective Factors for Violence
The Association Between Economic Disadvantage and IPV
Economic Empowerment as a Protective Prescription
Employment
Asset Ownership
Economic Consequences of IPV
Types of Costs: Direct, Indirect, and Intangible
Methodologies for Estimating Costs
The Macroeconomic Burden of IPV
Costs over Time
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
118 Stigma and IPV Victimization
Introduction
What Is Stigma?
Types of Stigma Related to IPV
IPV Stigma from Professionals
Factors That Can Contribute to Stigmatizing Responses Among Professionals
Why Stigma from Professionals Is Harmful
Law Enforcement
Court System
Medical Professionals
Mental Health Professionals
Domestic Violence Agencies
Religious Organizations
Employment and Education
Added Stigma
Measuring IPV Stigma
Overcoming the Stigma of IPV
Countering Stigma for Survivors
Holding Perpetrators Accountable
Creating Non-stigmatizing Systems
Strategies for Ending the Stigma Surrounding IPV
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
119 System Response to Intimate Partner Violence: Coordinated Community Response
Introduction
Social and Historical Context
The Duluth Domestic Violence Abuse Intervention Project (DAIP)
Components of an Effective Coordinated Community Response
Stakeholders in a Coordinated Community Response to Intimate Partner Violence
Evaluating Coordinated Community Responses
Effectiveness of Coordinated Community Responses
Critiques, Gaps, and Unmet Needs
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
120 Advocacy and Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
The Multifaceted Nature of Advocacy
Intersectionality and Movement Analysis
Types of Advocacy
Individual-Level Advocacy
Guiding Frameworks
Policy Advocacy
Key Elements of Policy Advocacy
Using Evidence from Research and Practice to Shape Policy Advocacy
Critical Analysis and the Lesson of Unintended Consequences
The Power of Collective Action
Prevention Advocacy
Moving Upstream
Dismantling Systems of Oppression
Creating Healthy Individuals, Families, and Communities
Trauma-Informed Prevention
Prevention Strategies and Approaches
Community Engagement and Collaboration
Community-Level Prevention Strategies and Approaches
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Prevention Program Examples
Cross-References
References
121 A Feminist Perspective on the Criminal Justice System Response to Domestic Violence
Introduction
Historical Backdrop and Feminist Response to Intimate Partner Violence
Feminist Perspectives on IPV and the Criminal Justice System Response
Criminal Justice System Response to Intimate Partner Violence
Law Enforcement
Mandatory/Preferred Arrest
Mandatory/Preferred Arrest and Recidivism
Unforeseen Consequences
Final Thoughts on Law Enforcement/Mandatory Arrest
Courts
No-Drop Prosecution
Domestic Violence Courts.
Final Thoughts on Courts
Corrections
Domestic Violence Offender Treatment Standards and BIPs
Colorado as a Case Study
Global Positioning System (GPS) Programs
Final Thoughts on Corrections/GPS
Coordinated Community Response to Intimate Partner Violence
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
122 Supporting Family Justice Centers Through Research and Evaluation
Introduction
Overview of the Family Justice Center Model
Existing Research on the Effectiveness of Family Justice Centers
Research and Evaluation Strategies for FJCs
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
123 Protection Orders: Shielding Intimate Partner Violence Victims from Harm
Introduction
Understanding Protection Orders
Feminist Conceptualizations of Protection Orders
The Protection Order Process
Motivating Factors
Applying for a Protection Order
Full Faith and Credit Provisions
Protection Order Eligibility
Civil Versus Criminal Systems
Administrative and Process-Oriented Challenges for Victims
Statutory Provisions
Protection Orders and Firearms
Protection Order Research
Outcome Studies
Key Points
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
124 Intimate Partner Violence and Family Law: Focus on Separating and Divorcing Parents
Introduction
Family Mediation
Custody Evaluations
IPV and Custody Evaluation Concerns
Alternative Dispute Resolution Processes with Limited IPV Research
Non-ADR Family Law Interventions with Little IPV Research
Case Example
Summary and Conclusions
Key Points
Cross-References
References
125 Intimate Partner Violence and Family Court
Introduction
IPV and Families
Children
Parents
Informed Court Decisions
Court Decisions Informed of Risk and Need for Protection
Decisions Informed by Parenting Behavior
Summary of IPV and Court Decisions
Court Interventions and IPV
Family Assessments
Court-Ordered Mediation and Parent Coordination
Summary of Court Services
Courts and Clinical Interventions
Individual Treatment in Families with IPV
Clinical Services for Perpetrators
Supervised Visitation
Summary of Clinical Services and IPV
Alienated Parents, Alienating Parents, and Reunification
Evidence-Informed Reunification
Summary of Alienation and Reunification
Knowledge Gaps and Controversies
Future Directions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
126 Domestic Violence Fatality Review: The State of the Art
Introduction
Definition of Domestic Violence Fatality Review
The Origins, Structure, and Governance of Review Teams
Reviewable Cases
Review Philosophy
Review Process
Team Membership
Review Work as a Coordinated Community Response
Fatality Review and the Law
Outcomes
Challenges
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Section XVII: Survivors: Health, Mental Health, and Disaster Impacts and Responses to Intimate Partner Violence
127 Addressing Intimate Partner Violence Within the Healthcare System
Introduction
Health Effects of IPV
Health Consequences of IPV Victimization
Health Consequences for IPV Perpetrators
Health Impacts for Second-Hand Exposure to IPV
Proposed Mechanisms for the Link Between IPV and Negative Health Effects
Increased Healthcare Needs and Utilization Among IPV Victims and Perpetrators
Healthcare System as a Point of Contact
IPV Screening Recommendations from National and International Organizations
US Preventive Services Task Force
American Medical Association
Nursing Associations
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
American Academy of Pediatrics
World Health Organization
Best Practices for IPV Screening and Response
Barriers to Screening and Implementing a System Wide Response to IPV
Patients´ Responses to IPV Screening
Helping HCPs Respond to a Patient´s Disclosure of IPV
Need for Better Training in Healthcare Systems and Among HCPs
Five Proposed Models of System Level Change
Healthcare Can Change from Within
Trauma- Informed Care Initiative
Patient-Centered Medical Home
Healthcare System Response to Dating Violence
National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Plan
System Change: Need for Champions, Change Models, and Effective Interventions
Ethics, Privacy, Reporting Laws, and Documentation Related to IPV Assessment and Intervention Within Healthcare Settings
Current Efforts to Move Beyond Screening Within the Healthcare System
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
128 Intimate Partner Violence and Sleep: An Overview of Sleep Disturbances and Interventions
Introduction
Part 1: Situating Sleep and IPV
The Basic Physiology of Healthy Sleep
The Effects of IPV on Sleep from a Neurobiological Perspective
Neurobiology of Trauma
Common Sleep Disturbances Associated with IPV
Insomnia
Nightmares
Other Sleep Disturbances Associated with Trauma
The Role of Sleep in Moderating or Mediating the Psychopathological Manifestations of IPV
Part 2: Non-Pharmacological Treatment for Sleep Disturbances Associated with IPV
Insomnia
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia
Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Nightmares
Traditional Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) for Nightmares
Psychodynamically Grounded IRT
Treatment of Other Sleep Disorders Associated with IPV
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
129 The US Mental Health Care System´s Response to Intimate Partner Violence: A Call to Action
Introduction
Mental Health Care System´s Current Response to IPV
Summary of the Mental Health Care System´s Current Response to IPV
Mental Health Care System Barriers and Controversies about the Role of Mental Health Care Providers in the Prevention and Trea...
A Call to Action
Importance of Conducting Prevention Activities with a Trauma-Informed Approach
Classification of Prevention Initiatives and Terminology
Overview of Universal Primary Prevention of IPV
The Role of Mental Health Care Providers in Universal Primary Prevention of IPV
Targeted Secondary Prevention of IPV
The Role of Mental Health Care Providers in Targeted Secondary Prevention of IPV
Assessment and Management of Risk for Future IPV Exposure
Summary of Mental Health Care System´s Role in Secondary Prevention
Tertiary Prevention of IPV
The Role of Mental Health Care Providers in Tertiary Prevention of IPV
Cultural Considerations
Model to Facilitate Integrating IPV Treatment into the Mental Health Care System
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
130 Mental Health Treatment in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction: Intimate Partner Violence, Trauma, and Mental Health
Prevalence of IPV and Other Lifetime Trauma Among People Accessing Mental Health Services
IPV and Lifetime Trauma
IPV and Psychiatric Disability
Mental Health Impact of IPV
Depression and IPV
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Complex Trauma, and IPV
IPV and Suicide
Mental Health Treatment in the Context of IPV
Preparing to Address IPV
Incorporating an Accessible, Culturally Responsive, IPV/Trauma-Informed Approach
Incorporating a DV-Advocacy Approach in Clinical Services
Attending to Privacy and Confidentiality
Attending to Physical and Emotional Safety
Intake and Assessment
Routine Inquiry and Assessment
Incorporating Awareness of IPV and Mental Health Coercion into Assessments
Previous Trauma History
Coping and Survival Strategies
Incorporating IPV-Specific Interventions into Mental Health Practice
Offering Information
Addressing Mental Health Coercion
Trauma Treatment in the Context of IPV
Parenting Support and Child Well-Being
Collaborating with the DV Field
Safety Planning and Crisis Response
Safety Planning
Psychiatric Advance Directives
Suicide Risk
Homicidality
Best Practices for Clinical Documentation
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
131 Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence
Treatment of PTSD in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
IPV and PTSD in Diverse Women
Reasons to Address PTSD in IPV Survivors
Services and Treatment
Standard Services for IPV Survivors
IPV Treatment Approaches
Specific Treatments for IPV-Related PTSD
HOPE for Residents of Domestic Violence Shelters
Structure of HOPE
HOPE Modules
The Empowerment Toolbox
HOPE: A Case Example
Research on HOPE
Recommendations Regarding HOPE
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
132 Male Victims of Female-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Violence: History, Controversy, and the Current State of Research
Introduction
History and Controversy of the Research on IPV by Women Against Men
Current Estimates of IPV by Women Towards Men in the United States
Methods for Studying IPV by Women Against Men
Intimate Partner Violence Experiences Among Samples of Male Victims
Why Do They Stay?
Mental and Physical Health of Male IPV Victims
Men´s Experiences Seeking Help for IPV Victimization
Child Witnesses of Female-on-Male IPV
Policy and Practice Implications
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
133 Feminist Perspectives on Disaster, Pandemics, and Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Sexual Minorities
African American Women
Indigenous Women
Disaster Related Violence and the Correlation with Intimate Partner Violence
COVID-19 Pandemic and the Rise in Intimate Partner Abuse
Impacts on Survivors of Intimate Partner Abuse
Additional Factors
Moving Forward
Unmet Needs for Survivors of Disaster
Changing Culture Through Strategic Planning to Protect Women in Disaster
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XVIII: Intimate Partner Violence: Special Populations
134 Intimate Partner Violence: Military Personnel and Veterans
Introduction
Scope of the Problem
Similarities and Differences
Combat Experience and IPV
Intersection of IPV with Combat-Related Co-Occurring Conditions
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Traumatic Brain Injury
Substance Use Disorder (SUD)
Depression
Suicide
Screening and Assessment
Screening
Screening for Military Service and War/Conflict Zone Deployments
Screening for IPV Perpetration
Screening for Co-occurring Conditions
Screening for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Screening for Traumatic Brain Injury
Screening for Substance Use Disorder
Screening for Depression
Assessment
Assessing Risk and Danger
The Case of Maria: More to the Story
IPV Treatment and Intervention
Implications for Practice: Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
135 Intimate Partner Violence in College Settings
Intimate Partner Violence in College Settings
IPV in College: Prevalence and Consequences for Physiological, Psychological, and Academic Well-Being
Potential College-Specific Factors Affecting IPV
Campus-Specific Predictors of IPV
Individual-Level Predictors of IPV in College
Cyber and Technological IPV in College
Gender Symmetry and Mutual Aggression in IPV in College
Same-Sex IPV Among College Students
Responses by the American College Health Association (ACHA) and Others
Responses to IPV in College: Title IX
Overview and History of Title IX
Title IX and IPV on College Campuses
Role of Administrators and Staff
Role of Faculty
Impact of Title IX on Students
Challenges to Title IX Implementation in College Settings
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
136 Human Trafficking and Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
Case Study
Subject Data
Witnessing of IPV During Childhood
Adult Experience of IPV
Coerced into Selling Sex
Batterer-Trafficker Tactics
Enmeshment in Human Trafficking Criminal Enterprise, Arrest, and Conviction
Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction
Case Summary
Intimate Partner Violence Exposure During Childhood and Human Trafficking
IPV in Childhood and Later Interpersonal Victimization
IPV in Childhood and Later Perpetration of Interpersonal Violence
Shared Dynamics of Intimate Partner Violence and Human Trafficking
Shared Consequences of IPV and Human Trafficking
Batterers and Traffickers
Treatment of Victims of Intimate Partner Violence and Human Trafficking
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
137 Poly-victimization: The Co-occurrence of Intimate Partner Violence with Other Forms of Aggression
Introduction
Forms of Abuse
Child Physical Abuse
Child Sexual Abuse
Child Psychological Abuse
Child Neglect
Witnessing Violence
Intimate Partner Violence and Dating Violence
Adult Sexual Assault
What Is Poly-Victimization?
Demographic Characteristics of Poly-Victims
Avenues to Victimization
Outcomes of Poly-Victimization
Implications
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
References
Section XIX: Perpetrators and Interventions for Intimate Partner Violence
138 Relationship Violence Perpetrator Intervention Programs: History and Models
Background
History
The Initiation of Batterer Programs
Early Controversies
Program Growth and Proliferation
Program and Practice Standardization
Re-evaluation of Program Models and Expanded Approaches
Models
Pro-feminist/Consciousness-Raising Models
Conceptual and Philosophical Assumptions
Intervention Strategies
Dissemination and Impact
Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions
Conceptual and Philosophical Assumptions
Intervention Strategies
Dissemination and Impact
Next-Generation CBT Approaches
Philosophy and Approach
ACT
DBT
Key Intervention Techniques
Dissemination and Impact
Other Approaches, Adaptations, and Adjunctive Interventions
Motivational Enhancement Therapy
Trauma-Informed CBT
Culturally Focused Interventions
Risk-Responsive and Forensic Intervention Models
Restorative Justice Approaches
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
139 The Efficacy of Psychosocial Interventions for Partner Violent Individuals
Introduction
Background
Are RVIP Programs Effective in Reducing IPV?
Conclusions from Meta-analyses of RVIP Efficacy
Which RVIP Approaches Are Most Effective?
What Are the Key Ingredients of Effective RVIP Interventions?
Enhance Motivation to Change
Facilitate Constructive Peer Influence
Promote Emotion Regulation
Improve Relationship and Communication Skills
Forensic Rehabilitation Models
Moving Forward to Promote Research-Based Practice
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
140 Alternative to Violence, a Violence-Focused Psychotherapy for Men Using Violence Against Their Female Partner
Introduction
The Alternative to Violence (ATV) Model
Intake Procedure and Assessment
A Violence-Specific Psychotherapeutic Approach
Addressing Client´s Use of Violence
Addressing Client´s Sense of Responsibility
Addressing Psychological Connections, Client´s Experiences Related to Violent Acts
Addressing Consequences of Violence
Nonviolence Groups for Men
Knowledge
Processing
Training
Including the Partner in IPV Therapy
The Partner Information Session
Including the Children Living in Families with Intimate Partner Violence
Addressing the Child´s Perspective in the Therapy Room
Breaking the Silence
Circle of Security Parenting, COS-P
Incorporating Interactional Models of Father and Child
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
141 Couples Counseling to End Intimate Partner Violence
Couples Counseling to End Intimate Partner Violence
Prevalence and Risk Markers for Situational Couple Violence
History of Couples Counseling for IPV and the Controversy Surrounding It
Objection 1: Conjoint Treatment Might Lead to Escalation of Violence
Objection 2: Use of a Systemic Framework Might Lead to Victim Blaming
Objection 3: Lack of a Careful Screening Process Might Lead to Inappropriate Clients Participating in Conjoint Treatment
Objection 4: Conjoint Treatment Might Provide a Format that Would Support Perpetrator Control and Abuse (As It May Encourage C...
Objection 5: Conjoint Treatment May Not Be Trauma Informed and May Fail to Consider the Historical and Cultural Contexts that ...
Treatment Approaches Including Both Partners Designed to Treat Court or Protective Service-Mandated Clients
Conjoint Treatment Approaches Designed for Carefully Screened Voluntary Clients
Domestic Violence-Focused Couples Treatment (DVFCT)
Screening
Additional Safety Measures
The First 6 Weeks
Final 12 Weeks of the Program
Programs Using Innovative Formats or Newer Approaches
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
142 Female Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence
Introduction
History of the Research and Controversy
Development of the Literature
Related Fields of Study
Summary
Recommendations for Future Directions
Key Points
Cross-References
References
Additional Resources
Section XX: Adult Sexual Harassment and Assault: Victimization and Perpetration
143 Rape Persists
Introduction
Sexual Assault Perpetration
Consequences of Victimization
Sexual Assault and Marginalized Identities
Intervention and Prevention
Setting- and System-Specific Sexual Assault
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
144 Sexual Assault Perpetration
Introduction
Socio-ecological Model
Individual-Level Perspective on Sexual Violence
Relationship-Level Perspective on Sexual Violence
Community Norms and Societal Influences
Elaboration of Socio-ecological Model
Individual Factors at the Situational Level
Relational Factors at the Situational Level
Community Factors at the Situational Level
Societal Factors at the Situational Level
Perpetration Intervention
Future Directions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
145 A Conceptual Overview of Drugging: It´s Not What You Think
Introduction
Prevalence of Drugging Victimization
Prevalence of Drugging and Sexual Assault
Drugging Perpetration
Types of Drugging
Types of Drugs
Theoretical Frameworks for Drugging
Drugging Victims: Who Are They?
Drugging Victims´ Experiences
Is Drugging Real?
Recommendations for Intervention and Prevention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
146 Nature and Scope of Technology-Facilitated or Related Sexual Violence: Focus on Pornography
The Rise and Evolution of Pornography
Theoretical Perspectives
Research on Pornography
Laboratory Studies
Survey Studies
Official Statistics
Limitations of Research
Agency in Pornography
Pornography and Violence against Women
Sexting and Revenge Pornography
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
147 Underground Anti-woman and Incel Movements and Their Connections to Sexual Assault
Introduction
The Development of the Manosphere: A Response to Women´s Empowerment
The Manosphere: Men´s Rights Activists, Pick-up Artists, and MGTOW
Incels in the Manosphere
Terrorism Attracts Attention
Discussion, Analysis, and Outlook
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
148 The Nature and Scope of Sexual Assault Victimization of Adults
Introduction
Extent of Adult Sexual Victimization
Sexual Victimization of Adult Men
Sexual Victimization of Sexual Minorities
Sexual Victimization of College Students
Recurring Sexual Victimization
Risk Factors for Sexual Assault and Harassment
Theoretical Perspectives
Individual, Behavioral, and Social Risk Factors
Prevention of Sexual Victimization
Alcohol and Drug Use Programs
Bystander Intervention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
149 Health and Mental Health Consequences from Sexual Trauma Victimizations
Sexual Assault as a Unique Crime
Neurobiological Effects
Hormonal Response to Trauma
Memory
Resiliency
Physical Health Outcomes
Physical Injury
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Pregnancy
General Health Concerns
Impaired Sleep
Impaired Appetite and Gastrointestinal Problems
Sexual Dysfunction
Mental Health Outcomes
Anxiety
Depression
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Behavioral Outcomes
Borderline Personality Disorder
Dissociation
Emotional Reactions
Suicidal Ideation
Psychosocial Outcomes
Impact of Triggers
Impact on Relationships
Financial Implications
Impact of Secrecy and Disclosure
High-Risk Groups and Intersectionality
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
150 Disclosing Sexual Assault: Understanding the Culture of Nondisclosure
Introduction
Definitions and Prevalence of Sexual Assault
Consequences of Sexual Assault
Disclosing Sexual Assault
Disclosing Barriers
Shifting the Culture Toward Disclosure
Research
Practice
Policy
Programming
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
References
151 False Reporting of Sexual Victimization: Prevalence, Definitions, and Public Perceptions
Introduction - False Reporting of Sexual Violence: Prevalence, Definitions, and Public Perceptions
Defining a False Report, an Unconfirmed Report, Unsubstantiated Report, and Baseless Report
Prevalence Rates of False Reports
Factors that Contribute to the Over-estimation of False Reports by Law Enforcement and the Public
How False Reports Can Be Manufactured by Lack of Trauma-Informed Investigation
Consequences of Overestimating the Prevalence of False Allegations
Factors Common in Reports of Sexual Victimization That Are Verified as False
How Can Law Enforcement Respond to False Reporting
How to Interact with Survivors to Reduce Vulnerability to Claims of False Reporting
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
152 Sexual Harassment Communication Across the Context and the Lifespan: An Interdisciplinary Perspective
Introduction
Interdisciplinary Research on Sexual Harassment Across the Lifespan
Conceptual Definitions of Sexual Harassment
Measuring Sexual Harassment
Antecedents and Consequences
Communication Perspective on Sexual Harassment
Discursive Approach
Narratives and Sexual Harassment
Power, Difference, and Discourse
New Areas of Research on Sexual Harassment Across the Lifespan
Online Sexual Harassment
Communicative Responses to Sexual Harassment
Future Areas of Research on Sexual Harassment Across the Lifespan
Macro-level Research Opportunities
Meso-level Policies, #MeToo, and Sexual Harassment on Social Media
Micro-level Issues
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
153 The Cultural Context of Sexual Assault and Its Consequences Among Ethnic Minority Women
Introduction
African American Women
Prevalence
Mental Health Effects
Sociocultural Factors
Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement
Latina American Women
Prevalence
Mental Health Effects
Sociocultural Factors
Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement
Asian American and Pacific Islander Women
Prevalence
Mental Health Effects
Sociocultural Factors
Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement
American Indian/Alaska Native Women
Prevalence
Mental Health Effects
Sociocultural Context
Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement
Arab and Muslim American Women
Prevalence
Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement
Implications for Future Research, Practice, and Policy Future Research Directions
Theoretical Models
Practice
Policy
Key Points
Concluding Thoughts
Cross-References
References
154 Unsafe Sanctuary: Immigrants of Color Victims of Sexual Abuse
Introduction
Pre-migration: La Caldera del Diablo (The Devil´s Cauldron)
Let Us Consider Socorro´s Reason for Leaving Guatemala
Socorro´s Pre-migration
Peri-migration: In-Transit Journey
Socorro´s Migration Journey
Arrival: In the Belly of a Beast
Socorro´s Arrival: Finding Esperanza
Post-migration: Unsafe Sanctuary
Socorro´s Post-migration: Re-traumatization
Culturally Relevant Trauma-Informed Psychotherapy
Socorro´s Recovery
Conclusion: Adversity, Resilience, and Post-traumatic Growth
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
155 Sexual Abuse Among Individuals with Disabilities
Case
Risk Factors
Gender
Race/Ethnicity
Age
Income and Education
Other Risk Factors
Case Application
Protective Factors
Case Application
Consequences
Case Application
Assessment
Assessment of Disability
Barriers
Abuse Screening Tool
Behavioral Observations
Family Assessment
Psychological Assessment
Case Application
Interventions
Crisis Situations
Treatment for Children
Treatment for Adults
Unique Treatments
Cultural Considerations
Case Application
Prevention
Women with Intellectual Disabilities
Children with Intellectual Disabilities
Self-defense Training
Healthcare Providers
Societal Changes
Case Application
Ethical Challenges
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
156 Sexual Violence among Sexual and Gender Minorities
Introduction
Prevalence of Sexual Violence Victimization Within Sexual and Gender Minorities
National Prevalence Data
Estimates of Sexual Violence Victimization among Trans and Nonbinary Populations
Unique Features and Contexts of Sexual Violence Perpetration Against and Among SGMs
Violence Against Sexual and Gender Minorities
Violence Among Sexual Minorities
Early Disparities and the Connections to Other Forms of Violence
Outcomes of Sexual Violence Victimization Among Sexual and Gender Minorities
Mental Health Outcomes
Physical Health Outcomes
Suicide
Response and Prevention for Sexual Violence Among Sexual and Gender Minorities
Minority Stress Theory
Barriers to Treatment
Protective Factors and Opportunities for Intervention
Policy Change
Training and Professional Development
Legal Identification
Community Connectedness
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
157 Identifying, Attending, and Protecting US Sex Trafficked Adults and Minors
Introduction
Overview of Human Trafficking in the United States
Trafficker Characteristics and Means
Vulnerabilities
Sex Buyers and Demand
Trafficking Biases and Myths
Lack of Attention on Adult Victims of Trafficking
Stigmatizing Terminology and Bias Towards Vulnerable Adults
Overlaps Between Trafficked Minors and Adults
Public Perceptions About Sex Trafficking
Media Coverage of Human Trafficking
Consequences of Trafficking and Intervention Recommendations
Health Consequences
Intergenerational Transmission
Psychological and Relational Supports
Caring for Providers and Desirable Approaches
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
158 Men Stopping Violence´s Definition of Male Sexual Violence Against Women: Implications for Prevention and Intervention
Current Definitions of Sexual Violence
Legal
Public Health
Campus/School Policies
Community-Based/Social Justice
Men Stopping Violence: A Different Approach
MSV´s Analysis of Male Violence Against Women
Why an MSV Definition?
MSV´s Definition
Unpacking ``Male Sexual Entitlement´´
Unpacking ``Tactics to Impose His Will´´
The Evolution of MSV´s Definition
How and Where the Definition Is Used
A Case Study
Strengths and Limitations of MSV´s Definition
Implications for Intervention and Prevention Efforts
Creating and Facilitating Spaces That Enhance Learning for Men
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
159 Reforming Comprehensive Sexuality Education to Prevent Sexual Assault
Comprehensive Sexuality Education
Defining Characteristics
Does CSE Work?
Implementation Limitations and Potential of Comprehensive Sexuality Education
Sexual Assault Prevention
Limitations and Potential of Sexual Violence Prevention Interventions
Integrating Comprehensive Sexuality Education and Sexual Assault Prevention
Needed Reforms
Role of Families in Sexuality Education
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
160 New Environmental Approaches to Preventing Sexual Assault: Building on a History of Individual-Level Interventions
Introduction
Theoretical Models Explaining Sexual Assault Perpetration
Risk Factors for Sexual Assault Perpetration: How Do Community/Environmental Factors Fit in?
Prior Evaluation of Sexual Assault Prevention Initiatives
Individual-Level Sexual Assault Prevention
Community-Level Sexual Assault Prevention
Opportunities for Social-Ecological Interventions to Prevent Sexual Assault
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
161 Sexual Harassment Training: Why It (Currently) Doesn´t Work and What Can Be Done
Introduction
Why (Current) Training Isn´t Working
Training Focused on Legal/Compliance
Expectation of Immediate Results
Negative Pretraining Attitudes
(Ineffective) Bystander Training
No Effectiveness Measurement
What We Really Need: Culture/Climate Change
Supporting Victims and Holding Perpetrators Accountable
Diffusing Organizational Hierarchy
Consistently Demonstrated Managerial Support
Readiness for Change
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
162 Interventions in the Aftermath of Sexual Violence: Justice, Advocacy, and Treatment
Introduction: The Impact of Sexual Violence on Individuals and Communities
A Note on Trauma-Informed and Survivor-Centered Approaches
Criminal Justice Response and Interventions in the Immediate Aftermath of Sexual Violence
Advocacy Response and Interventions: Individual-Level and Community-Level Interventions in the Aftermath of SV
Individual-Level Crisis Interventions
Assessment of Survivor Needs
Establishment of Trust and Addressing Survivor Emotional Responses
Plan for Accessing Resources and Overcoming Barriers
Community-Level Coordinated Responses
Restorative Justice as the Bridge Between Criminal Justice and Advocacy Response in the Aftermath of SV
After the Initial Response to SV: Treatment, Interventions, and Considerations
Safety Planning
Proximal Treatment
The Role of Intersectionality in SV Response and Intervention
Sexual Violence in Correctional Facilities
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
163 Treatment Interventions for Perpetrators of Sexual Violence
Introduction
History of Treatment for Perpetrators of Sexual Violence
Treatment Rationales
Treatment Effectiveness
General Treatment Challenges
Mandated Treatment
Lack of Confidentiality
Denial and Minimization
Dual Roles
Accessibility to Treatment and Other Resources
Common Factors Across Treatment Modalities
Assessment that Includes Multiple Data Sources
Collaboration with Other Professionals and Agencies
Common Core Treatment Targets
Treatment Modalities and Frameworks
Motivational Interviewing Techniques (MI)
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Relapse Prevention
Pharmacological
The Risk-Needs-Responsivity Model
The Good Lives Model
Integrated Treatment Approaches
Safe Offender Strategies
Inpatient Civil Commitment Programs
Treatment Considerations for Special Populations and Contexts
Child and Juvenile Offenders
College Sexual Violence
Military
Female Offenders
LGBTQ Offenders
Internet Offenders
Recommendations for Providers
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
References
164 Military Sexual Trauma
Introduction
Military Culture and MST
Protective Factors and Coping Strategies Among Women MST Survivors
Behavioral
Mental and Physical Health Outcomes
Functional Outcomes Among Women MST Survivors
Servicemen and MST
Sexual Orientation and Gender Minorities
Connections Between MST and Other Forms of Violence and Abuse
Treatment of MST
Military Policies and Programs
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
165 Sexual Violence and Religious Institutions: With a Special Focus on the Catholic Church
Introduction
Defining ``Sexual Violence´´ and ``Religious Institutions´´
Sexual Violence
Religious Institutions
Sexual Violence in Jewish Institutions
Sexual Violence in Islamic Institutions
Sexual Violence in Eastern Religious Institutions
Sexual Violence in Other Christian Institutions
Myths About Sexual Abuse in Religious Institutions
Myth 1: Men Who Have Been Sexually Abused Will Abuse Others
Myth 2: Men Who Abuse Are Gay
Myth 3: Only Boys Are Abused by Church Clergy
Myth 4: Abusers Only Target Victims from Broken Homes
Myth 5: All Priests Are Abusers
Myth 6: All Priests Who Abuse Are Pedophiles
Myth 7: Celibacy Is Responsible for Abuse
Collecting and Reporting Data on Sexual Violence in Religious Institutions
Major Investigations
Impact of Sexual Abuse
Physical Consequences
Psychological Consequences
Biological Consequences
Social Consequences
Religious and Spiritual Consequences
Cover-Up Dynamic
A Culture of Silence
Relocation as Atonement
Divine Justice Versus Procedural Justice
A Hierarchy of Issues
Clericalism
Attempts at Church Reform
Pastoral Care and Counseling for Sexual Trauma Survivors
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
166 Sexual Violence in the Context of Higher Education: The Current State of Research and Policy
Introduction
The Scope of the Problem of Sexual Violence Victimization on College Campuses
Methodological Challenges and Controversies
Perpetration of Sexual Violence in the Campus Context
Individual-Level Correlates of Perpetration
Peer-Level Correlates of Perpetration
Community-Level Correlates of Perpetration
Institutional Responses to Campus Sexual Violence
Federal Policies and Regulations Regarding Campus Sexual Violence
How Institutions Respond
Consequences of Inadequate Responses: Institutional Betrayal
Prevention of Sexual Violence on College Campuses
Effectiveness of Current Prevention Programming
Promising Prevention Strategies
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
167 Bars as a Drinking Context for Sexual Aggression
Introduction
Characteristics of Bars That Promote Sexual Aggression
Social and Psychological Factors
Physical Characteristics of Bars
Alcohol Intake of Patrons
Men´s Attitudes and Beliefs Associated with Sexual Aggression in Bars
Perceived Gender Roles and Norms
Peer Approval and Peer Dynamics
Responsibility of Women/Victim Blaming
Miscues and Innocent Overtures
The Role of Alcohol
Awareness of Impact on Target
Women´s Attitudes and Experiences of Sexual Aggression in Bars
Women´s Reasons for Drinking in Bars
Aggression Women Experience in Bars
Women´s Feelings About and Responses to Sexual Aggression in Bars
Women´s Insight into Causes of Aggression in Bars
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
168 Sexual Violence in Athletic Organizations
Introduction
Key Terms
Sexual Violence Perpetration by Athletes
Theoretical Considerations
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
169 Wartime Sexual Violence: A Historical Review of the Law, Theory, and Prevention of Sexual Violence in Conflict
Introduction
Defining Terms and Scope of Focus
Brief History of Sexual Violence in Conflict
Theorizing Wartime Rape
Sexual Violence in Conflict and International Law
Sexual Violence in Conflict Prevention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
170 Improving the Police Response to Rape Victims: Persistent Challenges and New Directions
Introduction
Reluctance to Report
Police Preparedness to Conduct Victim Interviews
Police Culture, Folk Knowledge, and Academic Findings
Gender Influences on Policing Rape
Special Populations of Rape Victims
Victims with Disabilities
College Students
Victims with Criminal Histories
Cultural Minority Groups/Immigrants and Refugees
Victims of Domestic Violence
Sex Trafficking Victims
Advantages of Rape Victim Advocates and Sexual Assault Response Teams
Current Initiatives and Future Directions
Training
Additional Methods of Reporting Rape
Policies Related to Gender and Sexuality
Videotaped Interviews
Clear Protocols for Intervention/Documentation
Areas for Future Research
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
171 Title IX and Restorative Justice as Informal Resolution for Sexual Misconduct
Introduction
Campus Adjudication and the Criminal Justice System: Differences and Similarities
Restorative Justice
Differentiating RJ and Mediation
Restorative Justice and Sexual Harm
Title IX and Campus Adjudication of Sexual Misconduct
Title IX and Informal Resolution
Restorative Justice in Higher Education
Restorative Justice as Informal Resolution for Sexual Misconduct
RJ Conferencing: A Fully Restorative Informal Resolution Option
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XXI: Adult Survivors of Childhood Abuse and Victimization
172 Progress in Understanding Victim-Survivors of Interpersonal Violence: Introduction to the Section
Introduction
The Topics and Chapters Included in This Part
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
173 The Contemporary Study of Adult Survivors of Interpersonal Violence and the Development of Mental Health Treatment
Introduction
Developments in the Psychotherapy for Adult Survivors of Interpersonal Violence
Early History
Development of New Schools
Contemporary Developments
The Development of Trauma-Specific Treatments
Developing Guidelines
Theory, Practice, and Research in Treatment of Adults with a History of IPV
Overview of Outcomes
Interrelationships Among Theory, Practice, and Research
Types of Evidence That Inform Treatment and Decision-Making
Evolution of Evidence Models
The Three Es
Clinical Decision-Making Based on Evidence
Treatment Guidelines Developed by Professional Associations
An Analysis of Clinical Practice Guidelines
Other Evidence for Clinical Decision-Making
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
174 Lifespan and Intergenerational Promotive and Protective Factors Against the Transmission of Interpersonal Violence in Dive...
Introduction
Rates of Childhood Maltreatment and Exposure to IPV
Definitions of Resilience
Evidence for Lifespan and Intergenerational Transmission of Interpersonal Violence
Theoretical Perspectives
Childhood Exposure to Interpersonal Violence and Adulthood IPV
Childhood Exposure to Interpersonal Violence and Maltreatment of Offspring
Section Summary
Buffering Against the Transmission of Interpersonal Violence
Buffering Against the Transmission of Maltreatment
Individual Factors
Relational Factors
Communal Factors
Buffering Against the Transmission of IPV
Individual Factors
Relational Factors
Communal Factors
Section Summary
Measurement of Promotive and Protective Factors
Novel Instruments
The Perinatal Period
Culturally Sensitive Methods
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
175 Adult Sequelae of Childhood Interpersonal Violence
Introduction
The CPTSD Diagnosis
Development of the CPTSD Diagnosis
Disturbances of Self-Organization
Commonly Observed Additional Symptoms
Critiques of the CPTSD Diagnosis
CPTSD Differential Diagnosis
The Neurobiology of CPTSD
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Central Nervous System
The Cerebellum
Using Neuroscience in Treatment
Treatment Applications
CPTSD in the Clinic: Case Study 1
Discussion of Case Study 1
Interventions Case 1
Case Study 2
Discussion of Case 2
Interventions Case 2
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
Cross-References
References
176 Impact of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on Adult Revictimization
Introduction
Scope and Significance of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization
The Relation of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization to the Occurrence of Adult Revictimization
Pathways from Child Maltreatment to Adult Revictimization
Impact of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on Neurobiological Development
Impact of Child Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on Psychosocial Development
Impact of Child Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on the Acquisition and Use of Personal and Interpersonal Coping Resources
Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization as Predictors of Psychological and Physical Health in Adulthood
Interventions
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
References
177 Impact of Interpersonal, Family, Cultural, and Institutional Betrayal on Adult Survivors of Abuse
Introduction
Betrayal Trauma Theory
Prevalence Rates and Risk Factors for High-Betrayal Trauma
Neurobiological and Developmental Impacts of Betrayal Trauma
Betrayal Trauma Theory Applied to Families, Institutions, and Minority Cultural Groups
Family Betrayal
Institutional Betrayal
Cultural Betrayal Trauma Theory
Treatments
Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT)
Prolonged Exposure (PE)
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy (EMDR)
Skills Training for Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR)
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
Complicated Grief Therapy (CTG)
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
Relational Cultural Therapy (RCT)
Summary and Conclusion
Key Points
References
178 The Tapestry of Identity: Understanding Intersectionality Within Victimization Experiences, Consequences, and Treatment of...
Introduction to Intersectionality Research: Origin and Definition
Importance of Intersectionality in Victimization Research
Intersectional Approaches in Research
Single Demographic Research and the Consequences of Abuse: How to Inform Future Intersectional Analysis
Intersectionality and the Experience and Efficacy of Treatment
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
179 Clinical Perspectives About Male Sexual Victimization: The Cultural and Historical Context of Gender
Introduction and Overview
Recommendations to Consider
Shifting the Paradigm
The Feminization of Sexual Victimization
The Impact of Isolation and ``Invisible Visibility´´
Identity Dysphoria
Dissociation
Untangling the Knot of Offender Mythologies
Prevalence and the Law
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion: Looking Toward the Future
Cross-References
References
180 Assessment and Clinical Decision-Making with Adult Survivors of Interpersonal Violence
Introduction
Interpersonal Violence and Collective Violence
Polyvictimization, Multiple Maltreatment, and Cumulative Traumas
Complex Trauma
Prevalence of Interpersonal Violence
The Impact of Interpersonal Violence
Measuring the Cumulative Effects of Interpersonal Violence
Assessing Interpersonal Violence
General Tips for Screening for IV
Know the Signs of Trauma
Use Screening Measures
Assess Safety
Conducting a Comprehensive Assessment of IV and Its Effects
Setting the Frame
Tools for the Assessment of Interpersonal Violence
Diagnostic and Symptom Measures
Self-Report Assessments of IV Exposure
The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5; Weathers et al. 2013b)
Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire (SLESQ; Goodman et al. 1998)
Trauma History Questionnaire (THQ; Hooper et al. 2011)
Structured Trauma-Related Experiences and Symptoms Screener for Adults (STRESS-A; Grasso et al. 2019)
Self-Report Assessments of Specific Types of IV Exposure
Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (ACE; Felitti et al. 1998)
Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF; Bernstein et al. 2003)
Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus et al. 1996)
Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTSPC; Straus et al. 1996)
Vulnerability to Abuse Screening Scale (VASS; Schofield and Mishra 2003)
Interview-Based Assessments of IV Exposure
Family Socialization Interview (FSI-R; O´Dor et al. 2017)
Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5; Weathers et al. 2013a)
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
Appendix 1
Self-Report Measures of Psychiatric Symptoms and Resilience
Appendix 2
Self-Report and Interview-Based Measures for the Assessment of IV Exposure and Impact
References
181 Dissociation, Dissociative Disorder, and Their Treatment
Introduction
The Key Definitions and Models of Dissociation
Dissociative Symptoms
The Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative Amnesia (DA)
Depersonalization or Derealization Disorder (DDD)
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Dissociative Subtype of PTSD
Assessment of Dissociation
Research on the Development of Dissociative Symptoms and Dissociative Disorder
The Biology of Dissociation
Treatment of Dissociation
Nonspecific Therapies for Dissociative Symptoms
Specific Therapies for Dissociative Disorders
Key Points
Conclusion and Summary
References
182 The Health Effects of Childhood Abuse and Adversity: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Trauma-Informed Care
Introduction
Background
Why ACEs Make People Sick
Five Pathways that Impact Health in Trauma Survivors
Physiological Pathways.
Behavioral Pathways
Cognitive Pathways
Social Pathways
Emotional Pathways
Diseases Associated with Adverse Childhood Experiences
Cardiovascular Disease
Diabetes/Metabolic Syndrome
Obesity/High BMI
Sleep Problems
Pulmonary Conditions
Somatic Complaints and Chronic Pain Syndromes
Autoimmune Disease
Patterns of Health Care Use
Health Care Providers´ Response Abuse Survivors
Patient Response to Screening
Implications for Policy
SAMHSA´s Model for Trauma-Informed Care
SAMSHA´s Principles of Trauma-Informed Care
Key Points
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
183 Attachment Styles and Vicarious Trauma
Introduction
Attachment Styles
Evidence-Based Relational Variables Contributing to Effective Treatment
How Attachment Styles and Reactions to Indirect Trauma Exposure Impact the Therapeutic Process
Therapist Attachment Styles and Responses to Vicarious Trauma Exposure
Self-Care and Intervention Implications
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XXII: Older Adult and Elder Abuse: Victimization and Perpetration
184 Introduction: Abuse in Later Life
Introduction
Intimate Partner Violence in Later Life
Sexual Victimization of the Elderly: An Examination of the Emergent Problem
Caregiving and Elder Abuse: A Complex Relationship
Recognizing the Trauma Experienced by Community-Dwelling Older Victims of Financial Abuse Perpetrated by Trusted Others
Neglect and Self-Neglect of Older Adults
Systems Responses to Older Adults and Elder Abuse
Polyvictimization and Elder Abuse
Intersectionality of Elder Abuse and Mental Health Issues: Needs and Interventions for Victims
Perpetrators of Elder Abuse
Elder Abuse, Impaired Adult Child, and Maternal Identity
Elder Abuse in Asia
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Elder Abuse in the Context of Family Violence: A Federal Legislative History
Cross-References
References
185 Intimate Partner Violence in Later Life
Introduction
Definitions
What Is Known about Late-Life IPV
Prevalence
Gender and Prior History of Trauma
Health Status, Dependence, and Social Isolation
Health Consequences of IPV for Older Adults
Economic Abuse as a Subset of Late-Life IPV
Aging Unequally and Late-Life IPV Risk
Helpseeking: Responses to Survivors in Later Life
Social Norms that Discourage Older Survivors from Seeking Help
Practical Barriers to Help-Seeking for Older Survivors
Promising Practices for Victim Advocacy for Older IPV Survivors
Categories of Intimate Partner Relationships in Later Life
Principles for Victim-Defined Advocacy
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
186 Sexual Victimization of the Elderly: An Examination of the Emergent Problem
Introduction/Historical Context
Definitional and Methodological Deficits
Prevalence and Incidence
Victim and Offender Profiles
Victims
Offenders
Consequences
Strategies to Address Intervention and Prevention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
187 Recognizing the Trauma Experienced by Community-Dwelling Older Victims of Financial Abuse Perpetrated by Trusted Others
Introduction: Historical Overview of Financial Exploitation
The Definition and Prevalence of Financial Exploitation
Conceptual Models
Consequences of Financial Abuse
Financial Abuse, Trauma, and PTSD
Interpersonal Dynamics of Financial Abuse
Hybrid Financial Abuse: One Form of Polyvictimization
Financial Abuse Risk Factors in an Ecological Context
Intersectionality and Financial Abuse
Perceptions of Financial Abuse by Professionals and Older Adults
Detection (Screening) and Reporting Financial Abuse
Society´s Response: Civil
Society´s Response: Criminal
Society´s Response: Interventions and Prevention
Future Research
Key Points
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
188 Neglect and Self-Neglect of Older Adults
Introduction
Case Examples
Neglect by Others
Definitions and Epidemiology
Epidemiology of Neglect
Phenotype and Detection
Prevention and Intervention
Neglect of Self
Overview
Definitions & Epidemiology
Prevalence
Morbidity and Mortality
Phenotype and Detection
Etiology of Self-Neglect
Biological and Psychological Factors
Cognition, Memory, and Executive Function
Impaired Activities of Daily Living
Inadequate Support Services
Intentional or Unintentional Neglect
Etiologic Model Summary
Prevention and Intervention
Detection and Reporting
Intervention
Impact of Abandonment and Neglect
Interconnections with Other Types of Violence
Lack of Decision-Making Capacity Is the Unifying Theme of Elder Mistreatment
Neglect Versus Self-Neglect
Social Justice Implications
Human Suffering
Training for Health Care Providers
Community Responses
Policy and Advocacy
Screening
Multidisciplinary Team Interventions
Training Elder Mistreatment Experts
Where the Field Is Going
Forensic Centers: When Neglect Is Criminal
Research Around Dementia
Telehealth
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
189 Polyvictimization and Elder Abuse
Introduction
Section I: Background
A Definition of Polyvictimization in Later Life
Theoretical Constructs and Explanatory Frameworks
The Socio-Ecological Framework
Advancing the Contextual Theory of Elder Abuse
Polyvictimization Research in Context
Studies on Children and Adolescents
Studies on Intimate Partner Violence
Polyvictimization by Surrogate Decision-Makers
Older Adult Polyvictims Amidst the Opioid Epidemic
Section II: Clinical and Sociological Reflections on Polyvictimization
Clinical Case Analysis
Sociological Analysis
Future Directions for Research and Practice
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
190 Perpetrators of Elder Abuse
Introduction
Prevalence of Elder Abuse and Perpetrators
Framework for Studying Perpetrators of Elder Abuse
Personal Characteristics of Perpetrators of Elder Abuse
Age and Gender
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture
Personality
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Conditions
Relationships Between Perpetrators and Victims of Elder Abuse
Community Settings
Residential Settings
Interventions for Perpetrators of Elder Abuse
Supporting Care Arrangements
Choosing and Monitoring Appropriate Surrogate Decision-Makers
Expressing Preferences for Care
Holding Perpetrators Accountable
Recognizing of What Constitutes Elder Abuse and Why It Is Not Ethical or Moral
Specifically Identifying Ageism as a Contributor to Elder Abuse
Directions for Future Research
The Role of Socioeconomic Status
The Role of Mental Health Status
The Role of Substance Abuse
The Role of Interdependence
The Role of Education
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
191 Systems Responses to Older Adult and Elder Abuse
Introduction
Background: Definitions and Prevalence
Emergence of Elder Abuse as a Problem Requiring a Response
Systems Response: Philosophy and Approach
Identification of Elder Abuse
Older Adult Abuse and the Health Care System
Adult Protective Services
The Aging Network
Domestic Violence and Victims´ Services
Criminal Justice and Legal System Responses
A Multidisciplinary Response
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
192 Elder Abuse in Asia
Introduction
Aging Population in Asia
Population Aging, Economic Growth, and Elder Abuse
Sociocultural Specifics and Elder Abuse
Intergenerational Relationships and Elder Abuse
East Asia
South Asia
The Middle East: Arabs
Gender and Elder Abuse
Women as Victims
East Asia
South Asia
The Middle East
Culture-Specific Forms of Abuse
East Asia
South Asia
Middle East
Culture-Specific Response to Elder Abuse
East Asia
South Asia
The Middle East
Social Responses
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
193 Caregiving and Elder Abuse: A Complex Relationship
Introduction: ``Do families really do these things?!´´
Key Definitions: ``The neighbors thought I was awful. They condemned me, because I hit an old man´´
Elder Caregiving
Elder Abuse
The Interface of Caregiving and Elder Abuse: ``You need to be around for a whole day to see what it´s like´´
Historical Perspectives
Caregiving as Context
A Portrait of Caregiving
Current State of Knowledge: ``[Caregiving] was expected of me since childhood. I feel like I was programmed for this purpose´´
Theory
Prevalence and Reporting
Consequences
Prevention and Intervention: ``I don´t want anyone´s help. I have my family. It´s not easy, but we´re all each other has´´
Key Points: ``I change her and she does it again. I tell her I´ll spank her if she don´t stop´´
Summary and Conclusions: ``He´s dead. Thank God´´
Cross-References
References
194 Intersectionality of Elder Abuse and Mental Health Issues: Needs and Interventions for Victims
Introduction
The Perpetrator
The Victim
A Promising Intervention for Victims
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
195 Mothers´ Perspectives on Abuse by Adult Children
Introduction
Understanding Mothers with Dependent Adult Children: What the Literature Says
Intergenerational Relationships in Later Life
Mothering Difficult or Abusive Adult Children
Child to Adult Violence
The Ideology of Intensive Mothering
Linked Lives of Mothers and Their Impaired Adult Children
No Empty Nest: Motherwork in Later Life
Types of Adult Child Problems Reported by Older Mothers
Violating Maternal Expectations
Feeling Disappointed and Disrespected
Boundary Violations
Attempting to Take Over Mother´s Space
Physically Attacking Mother
Ambivalence
Whose Needs Take Precedence? Theirs or Mine?
I´m Afraid Harm Will Come to Her
I Can´t Walk Away: I´m Attached
If I Wait, He Will Change
Internalizing the Problem
Who´s to Blame?
Health Impacts on the Mother
Actions for Self-Protection
Frustration with Available Societal Interventions
Conclusion
Key Points
Comply
Cross-References
References
196 Intersectionality of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture in Neglect, Abuse, and Violence Against Older Persons: Human Rights, Glo...
Introduction
COVID-19 and Older People: Heightened Risks in the Pandemic Environment
Human Rights and Public and Global Health Frameworks: The Right to Health, Palliative Care and Pain Relief
An Intersectional Lens on Elder Abuse: Historic Inequities in Social and Economic Determinants of Health and Health Disparities
Elder Mistreatment and Black/African Americans: Research Findings
Mistreatment and Latinx Older Adults
Mistreatment of American Indian Elders
Elder Mistreatment of Asian-American Older Adults
Palliative Care as Public Health Policy Response and Intervention: Mitigation of Older Adult Risk and Suffering in Pandemics
International Palliative Care Frameworks: The Public Health Strategy
Universal Instrument to Promote Human Rights of Older People (Convention)
Key Points
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section XXIII: Future Directions in Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan
197 Future Directions in System Responses to Interpersonal Violence and Abuse: Community Perspectives
Introduction
Incorporating Advocacy and Policy into the Behavioral Health Professions
Moving Back and Forth: Marrying Science and Policy
An Interprofessional Obligation to Advocate for Communities in Need
Formal Incorporation of Policy into Behavioral Health Training Models
Formal Training Requirements Targeting Interpersonal Violence
The Impact of Interpersonal Violence
Understanding Interpersonal Violence Leads to Prevention and Mitigation
Recognizing Social Determinants of Violence
Managing Multiple Determinants in Prevention and Mitigation Strategies
Personal Perspectives
Effective Advocacy
Concluding Reflections
Key Points
References
198 Future Directions in Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Interventions Across the Lifespan
Introduction
Child Abuse
Historical and Current Neglect of Child Abuse
Public Health Issue
Secondary Intervention and Adverse Childhood Experiences Research
Trauma-Based Treatment for Child Victims
Parental Enhancement Programs
Tertiary Intervention with Offending Parents
Hotline for Good Parenting
Rethinking Childhood Diagnoses as Family Systems Issues
``Failure to Be Present´´ as Child Neglect
Intimate Partner Violence
Research on Batterer Intervention Programs (BIPs)
Measuring Effectiveness
Future BIP Designs
Systemic Interventions for Offenders and Victims
Sexual Abuse and Rape
Mass Public Campaign to Dismantle Rape Culture
Address Barriers to Reporting Sexual Assault
Trauma-Informed Intervention for Victims
Changes to the Criminal Justice System
Bring Men Along
Intervention for Offenders
Actions That Can Be Implemented Now
Abuse of Older Adults
Polyvictimization
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
199 Future Directions in Advocacy in Response to Interpersonal Violence
Introduction
Understanding Advocacy in Interpersonal Violence: A Brief Overview
Advocacy is About Building Relationships
Advocacy Is Transferring Resources
Advocacy as Transformation
Advocacy in the Gender-Based Violence Field: A Case Example
Building Advocacy Interventions from the Individual to the Community: A Brief History
A Move Towards Systems Advocacy
Developing Engagement with the Criminal and Civil Legal Systems
Expanded Engagement with Child Protective Services
Professionalizing and Funding of the Movement
Radical Visioning for the Future
Culturally Specific Services
Transformative Justice Advocacy Approach
Develop Community-Based, Survivor-Led Advocacy
Invest in a Practice of Advocacy for Primary Prevention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
200 Trauma and Violence Across the Lifespan: Public Policy Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions
Introduction
Child Trauma and Violence
Quantifying Child Abuse
Addressing Child Abuse Through Policy
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA)
Children´s Justice Act and CAPE
Family First Act of 2018
Modernizing Child Abuse Treatment and Prevention
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network
Intimate Partner Violence
Interpersonal Violence on College Campuses
Policies to Address IPV
Violence Against Women Act
Future Policy Directions
Gun Violence/Community Violence
Hate-Based Violence
Hate Crime Statistics Act
Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act
Emerging and Future Policy Directions
Elder Abuse
Elder Justice Act
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
201 Future Directions in Interpersonal Violence Prevention Across the Lifespan
Introduction: What is Interpersonal Violence?
Preventing Multiple Forms of Violence Across The Lifespan
Interpersonal Violence Rarely Occurs in Isolation
Promising Examples of Efforts to Prevent Multiple Forms of Violence
Intervening at Multiple Levels of the Social Ecology
Incorporate the Context of Violence into Prevention Programming
Community Context
Cultural Context
Sociopolitical Context
The Complex Interplay Between Various Levels of the Social Ecology
The Importance of Selective and Indicated Prevention
An Example Prevention Program that Combines Universal, Selective, and Indicated Strategies: Triple P
An Example of the Need for Selective and Indicated Prevention: Campus Sexual Assault
The Use of New and Emerging Technologies in Violence Prevention
Key Points
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
202 The Evolution of Interpersonal Violence Research and Prevention Across the Lifespan in the United States: The Past, Presen...
Introduction
The Past: Violence Emerges as a Public Health Issue
Historical Evolution of the Field
Documenting the Problem
Predicting and Preventing Violence
The Present: Moving Toward Integration
Focusing Prevention Efforts During Childhood and Adolescence
Focusing on Populations and Communities at Greatest Risk for Violence
Focusing on Shared Risk and Protective Factors with the Greatest Impact
Identification, Implementation, and Scale-Up of Approaches with Cross-Cutting Impact
The Future
Advance our Ability to Measure and Track Violence and Its Prevention in Real Time
Conduct Research to Better Understand and Prevent Online Violence and Use Online Platforms to Prevent Violence
Conduct Research to More Fully Understand ACEs and PCEs
Expand Research on the Impact of Interventions/Policies on Multiple Forms of Violence
Expand Implementation Research and Science
Development of a Violence Prevention Workforce
Focusing on Social Determinants of Health and Structural Inequities in Violence Prevention Efforts
Key Points
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Index