Handbook of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Sensors and Radiation Detectors: Volume 1, Materials and Technology

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Part I: II-VI Semiconductors Properties
Chapter 1: Introduction in II-VI Semiconductors
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The History of II-VI Semiconductors: A Brief Journey
1.3 Material Properties
1.3.1 General Trends: Chemistry, Structure and Band Gaps
1.3.2 II-VI Semiconductor Alloys
1.3.3 Band Alignment and Heterostructures
1.3.4 Conductivity Type and Doping
1.3.5 Nanostructures
1.4 Applications
1.4.1 Infrared Detectors and Focal Plane Arrays
1.4.2 Devices in the THz Range
1.4.3 X-Ray and Gamma Ray Detectors
1.4.4 Solar Cells, UV-VIS Detectors, and Light-Emitting Devices
1.4.5 Biosensors
1.4.6 Gas Sensors
1.4.7 Photocatalysis
1.5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 2: Cd- and Zn-Based Wide Band Gap II-VI Semiconductors
2.1 General Characterization
2.2 Crystallography
2.3 Chemical Bond
2.4 Band Structure
2.5 Physical Properties
2.6 Stability
2.7 Chemical Properties
2.8 Material Technologies
2.8.1 Single Crystals
2.8.2 Thin Films
2.8.3 Nanocrystals and Polycrystals
2.9 Electrophysical Properties
2.9.1 Undoped Materials
2.9.2 Doping of II-VI Compounds
2.10 Surface Properties
2.11 Catalytic Properties
2.12 Applications
References
Chapter 3: Hg-Based Narrow Bandgap II-VI Semiconductors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crystallography
3.3 Synthesis
3.4 Chemical Properties
3.5 Stability
3.6 Chemical Bond
3.7 Band Diagram
3.8 Specific Properties of Zero or Very Narrow Bandgap HgSe and HgTe
3.9 Physical Parameters
3.10 Electrophysical Properties
3.11 Doping
3.12 Applications
3.13 Limitations
References
Chapter 4: Ternary II-VI Alloys Promising for Application in Photodetectors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Properties of Ternary II-VI Alloys
4.2.1 Structural Properties of Ternary II-VI Alloys
4.2.2 Electronic Properties of Ternary II-VI Alloys
4.2.3 Optical Absorption
4.3 Overview of Relevant Photovoltaic Device Physics
4.4 Effects Relevant to Photodetector Applications in II-VI Semiconductor
4.5 Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT, CdZnTe)
4.6 Mercury Cadmium Telluride (HCT, HgCdTe)
4.7 Mercury Zinc Telluride (HZT, HgZnTe)
4.8 Dimensionality
References
Chapter 5: II-VI Semiconductors Bandgap Engineering
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Approaches for Bandgap Engineering
5.3 Bandgap Engineering via II-VI Solid Solutions Formation
5.4 BandGap Engineering via Doping
5.5 BandGap Engineering via Heterostructures Forming (Superlattices, Quantum Wells)
5.6 BandGap Engineering via Temperature Control
5.7 BandGap Engineering via Lattice Strain
5.8 BandGap Engineering via Size Control of Nanoparticles (QDs) Size
5.9 BandGap Engineering via Modification of Core-Shell Structures
5.10 BandGap Engineering via Technology Control
References
Chapter 6: Electronic Structure of Mercury Chalcogenides Nanocrystals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Synthesis
6.3 Electronic Structure
6.3.1 Confined HgTe
6.3.2 Intraband Absorption and Doping
6.3.3 Doping and Surface Chemistry
6.3.4 Temperature and Pressure Effects on the Band Gap
6.3.5 Experimental Determination of the Electronic Structure: Results from Photoemission
6.3.6 Carrier Dynamics from fs to ms
6.4 Optical Features
6.4.1 Light Emission: Pholuminescence, Lasing, and Electroluminescence
6.4.2 Optical Index
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Colloidal Nanoparticles of II-VI Semiconductor Compounds and Their Participation in Photosensitization of Metal Oxi...
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Recent Approaches to the Colloidal Synthesis of Nanocrystals and Nanocrystal Heterostructures Based on II-VI Semiconductors
7.3 Electronic Properties of Nanoparticles of II-VI Semiconductors
7.4 Photosensitive Properties of II-VI Semiconductors/Metal Oxides Nanocomposites
7.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Quantum Dot (QD)-Induced Toxicity and Biocompatibility
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Properties of Quantum Dots (QDs)
8.3 Core/Shell Nanostructures
8.4 Surface Modifications
8.4.1 Polymer Coating
8.4.2 Silanization
8.5 Biocompatibility
8.5.1 Intracellular Fate of QDs in Cells
8.5.1.1 Cellular Uptake of QDs
8.5.1.2 Dynamic Process of Uptake and Elimination of QDs
8.5.1.2.1 Cadmium-Based QDs
8.5.1.2.2 Indium-Based QDs
8.5.1.2.3 Silver-Based QDs
8.5.1.2.4 Silicon-Based QDs
8.5.1.2.5 Carbon-Based QDs
8.6 Elucidation of Potential Toxicity
8.6.1 Genotoxicity
8.6.2 Cytotoxicity
8.6.3 Photo-Induced Toxicity
8.7 Molecular Mechanisms Induced by QDs
8.7.1 Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress
8.7.2 Release of Cadmium from Cadmium-Containing Quantum Dots
8.7.3 Elevated Intracellular Ca2+ Levels
8.8 Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of QDs In Vivo
8.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Part II: Material Technology
Chapter 9: Features of Single-Crystal Growth of CdTe and Cd1-xZnxTe Compounds Designed for Radiation Detectors
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Problems of Growing Large Single Crystals
9.3 Features of Growing Single Crystals of CdTe and Cd1-xZnxTe
9.3.1 Vapor-Phase Growing Method
9.3.2 Growing from Tellurium Solution-Melt
9.3.3 Melt Growing
9.3.3.1 Bridgman Method
9.3.3.1.1 Bridgman-Stockbarger Method
9.3.3.1.2 High-Pressure Bridgman Method
9.3.3.1.3 Low-Pressure Bridgman Method
9.3.3.2 Vertical Gradient Freezing (VGF) Method or Modified Bridgman Method
9.3.3.3 Zone Felting Method
9.4 Market of CdTe and CdZnTe Crystals
9.5 Electrical Conductivity Control
References
Chapter 10: Thin Films of Wide Band Gap II-VI Semiconductor Compounds: Features of Preparation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Vacuum Thermal Evaporation
10.3 Magnetron Sputtering
10.4 Pulsed Laser Deposition Technique
10.5 Ion Beam Sputtering (IBS)
10.6 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
10.7 Epitaxial Deposition
10.8 Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction (SILAR)
10.9 Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD)
10.10 Aerosol Spray Pyrolysis (ASP)
10.11 Electrochemical Deposition
10.12 Close-Space Sublimation Method
References
Chapter 11: Synthesis of II-VI Semiconductor Nanocrystals
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Mechanochemical Method
11.3 Co-precipitation Methods
11.4 The Sol-Gel Processing
11.5 Hydrothermal Technique
11.6 Solvothermal Technique
11.7 Sonochemical Method
11.8 Microemulsion Technique
11.9 Microwave-Assisted Method
11.10 Hot-Injection and One-Step Colloidal Method
11.11 Photochemical Synthesis
11.12 Green Synthesis
References
Chapter 12: II-VI Semiconductor-Based Nanomaterials
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Colloidal Nanoparticles
12.3 Synthesis of 1D Nanostructures
12.4 2D Nanomaterials (Nanosheets)
12.5 Core-Shell Structures
12.5.1 Core-Shell QDs
12.5.2 Core-Shell 1D Structures
12.6 Hollow Nanostructures
12.7 Stability Issues of Sensors Based on II-VI Nanoparticles
References
Chapter 13: CdTe-Based Nanoparticles Synthesized in Solutions
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Synthesis of CdTe-Based Nanoparticles
13.3 Doping, Alloying, and Ion-Sensing via Incorporation of Transition Metals
13.3.1 Incorporation of Hg2+ Ions into the Structure of CdTe Nanocrystals
13.3.2 Incorporation of Mn2+ and Zn2+ Ions into the Structure of CdTe Nanocrystals
13.3.2.1 CdTe:Mn
13.3.2.2 CdTe:Zn
13.4 Other CdTe-Based Alloys
13.5 CdTe-Based Core-Shell Structures
References
Chapter 14: II-VI Quantum Dots and Their Surface Functionalization
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Quantum Dots
14.1.2 Synthesis of Semiconductor Quantum Dots
14.2 Stability and Biocompatibility of II-VI QDs
14.2.1 Stability of II-VI Colloidal Nanoparticles
14.2.2 Surface Modification and Photostability
14.2.3 Biocompatibility
14.3 Surface Functionalization of Quantum Dots
14.3.1 Phase Transfer of Nanoparticles
14.3.1.1 Ligand Exchange
14.3.1.2 Ligand Modification
14.3.1.3 Additional Coating Layers
14.3.2 Surface Functional Groups
14.3.3 Surface Modification with Polyethylene Glycol
14.3.4 Polymer Coating
14.4 Biofunctionalization and Bioconjugation of II-VI QDs for Biomedical and Biosensing Applications
14.4.1 Introduction in Bioconjugation
14.4.2 Applications of Bioconjugation
14.4.2.1 Semiconductor Quantum Dots as Biological Labels
14.4.2.2 Biosensors
14.4.2.3 Quantum Dots for Drug Delivery and Therapeutics
14.4.2.4 Fluorescent Dyes and Other Functions, Multifunctional Particles
14.5 Summary
References
Chapter 15: HgCdTe Device Technology
15.1 Introduction
15.2 HgCdTe Material Technology
15.2.1 HgCdTe Bulk Crystal Technology
15.2.1.1 Solid-State Recrystallization Method
15.2.1.2 Traveling Heater Method
15.2.1.3 Bridgman Method
15.2.2 HgCdTe Epilayer Technologies
15.2.2.1 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy
15.2.2.2 Metal-Organic Vapor-Phase Epitaxy
15.2.2.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy
15.3 Etching Technology
15.4 HgCdTe Surface Passivation Technology
15.5 Electric Contact Technology
15.6 p-n Junction Technology
15.6.1 Mercury Diffusion
15.6.2 Ion Etching
15.6.3 Reactive Ion Etching
15.6.4 Ion Implantation
15.6.5 p-on-n Versus n-on-p HgCdTe Diodes
15.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: II-VI Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor Device Technology: Deposition, Doping, and Etchig
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Synthesis and Deposition of II-VI Semiconductors
16.2.1 Synthesis of Single Crystals
16.2.2 Film Deposition
16.3 Doping of II-VI Semiconductors
16.3.1 General Consideration
16.3.2 Ion Implantation
16.3.3 Formation of p-n Junction
16.4 Etching of II-VI Semiconductor Compounds
16.4.1 Chemical Wet Etching
16.4.2 Dry Etching
References
Chapter 17: II-VI Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor Device Technology: Schottky Barrier, Ohmic Contacts, and Heterostructures
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Schottky Diodes
17.2.1 II-VI Semiconductor-Based Schottky Barriers
17.2.2 Aging of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Schottky Diodes
17.3 Ohmic Contacts
17.3.1 p-CdTe
17.3.2 ZnSe
17.3.3 n-ZnS
17.3.4 n-CdS
17.4 Heterojunctions
References
Chapter 18: II-VI Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor Device Technology: Stability and Oxidation
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Stability of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Devices
18.2.1 Stability of CdTe/CdS Solar Cells
18.2.2 Stability of II-VI Semiconductor-Based Quantum Dots
18.3 Native Oxides
18.4 Thermal Oxidation of II-VI Compounds
18.4.1 CdS
18.4.2 ZnS
18.4.3 ZnTe and CdTe
18.4.4 ZnSe and CdSe
18.5 Surface Passivation
References
Chapter 19: II-VI Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor Device Technology: Post-Deposition Treatments
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Thermal Treatments
19.3 CdCl2 Treatment
19.4 Post-Deposition Treatment with Alkalis
19.5 Chemical Etching
19.6 Laser Treatment
References
Index