Handbook of Energy Transitions

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Editor
Contributors
Section I: Introduction to the 21st-Century Energy Transition
Chapter 1 Dynamics of a Sustainable Energy Transition
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Key Dimensions of the Energy Transition
1.3 Decarbonization
1.3.1 Renewable Energy
1.3.2 Decarbonization in the Fossil Fuel Sector
1.3.3 Electric Vehicles
1.3.4 Energy Storage
1.3.5 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
1.4 Energy Efficiency
1.5 Decentralization
1.6 Digitalization
1.7 Policy and Investment Trends
1.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2 Energy Transitions: Trend, Drivers, Barriers, and Policies
2.1 Trend and Transitions of Global Energy
2.2 Drivers of Energy Transitions
2.2.1 Supply Constraints
2.2.2 Cost Advantages
2.2.3 Performance Advantages
2.2.4 Policy Decisions
2.2.5 Energy and Environment Standard Ratings and Codes
2.3 Barriers of Energy Transitions
2.3.1 Technology Transfer and Value Chains
2.3.2 Financial Risk and Path Dependency
2.3.3 Trade Barrier
2.4 Policies in Energy Transitions
2.4.1 Targets Setting and Strategic Planning Policies
2.4.2 Policies Targeting Upfront Investment Costs
2.4.3 Policies Targeting Energy Generation
2.4.4 Regulatory Policies
2.4.5 Other Policies
2.5 Global Initiative
2.5.1 The Paris Agreement
2.5.2 International Best Practices on Long-Term Strategy on Net-Zero Emission
2.6 Examples of Energy Transitions in Developed Countries
2.6.1 Solidarity
2.6.1.1 Building Energy Efficiency Retrofitting
2.6.1.2 Electric Vehicle Penetration
2.6.1.3 Fuel Switching in Power Plants
2.6.2 Energy Security
2.6.2.1 Reducing Fossil Fuel Import Dependency
2.6.2.2 Increasing Regional Grid Integration
2.6.2.3 Smart Energy Systems
2.6.3 Competitiveness and Innovation
2.6.3.1 Standardization of Energy Technology and Supply
2.6.3.2 Common Energy Regulation
2.6.3.3 Advancing Innovation
2.7 Examples of Energy Transitions in Developing Countries
2.7.1 Electrification
2.7.2 Efficiency Improvement and Fuel Switching
2.8 Energy Transition in Asian Emerging Countries
2.8.1 India’s Energy Transition
2.8.2 China’s Energy Transition
2.8.3 Indonesia’s Energy Transition
2.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3 Geopolitics of the Energy Transition
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Framing Energy in Geopolitical Terms
3.3 The (Slow) Demise of Fossil Fuels
3.4 Geopolitics of Renewable Energy
3.4.1 Geopolitics of Electrification
3.4.2 Hydrogen Geopolitics
3.4.3 A Race for Critical Materials?
3.4.4 Hydro, Nuclear, and Biomass
3.5 Redefining Energy Mastery
3.6 Conclusions
References
Section II: Energy Transition: Resources and Technologies
Chapter 4 Renewable Energy Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Economic Perspective
4.1.1.1 Cost Comparison of 2019 and 2020
4.2 Solar Energy Transition
4.2.1 Solar PVs
4.2.2 Concentrating Solar Power
4.2.3 Technological Development
4.3 Geothermal Energy Transition
4.3.1 Technology Development
4.4 BioEnergy Transition
4.4.1 Technology Development
4.5 Wind Energy Transition
4.5.1 Onshore Wind Energy
4.5.2 Offshore Wind Energy
4.5.3 Technology Development
4.6 Renewable Energy Distribution Systems
4.7 Renewable Energy Adaptation
4.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 A Global Hydropower Generation, Potentials, and Externalities
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hydropower Generation Options
5.3 Global Hydropower Capacity Development Over Time
5.4 Hydropower Generation: Current Status
5.5 Potentials of Hydropower Generation across the World
5.6 Economic and Income Distribution Impacts
5.7 Environmental Externalities
5.8 Hydropower Politics
5.9 Integrative Assessment of Dam Construction
5.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 A Multigenerational Solar Energy-Driven System for a Residential Building
6.1 Introduction
6.2 System Description
6.3 Analysis
6.4 Results and Discussion
6.4.1 Base Case
6.4.2 Parametric Studies
6.5 Conclusions
Nomenclature
Greek letters
Subscripts
References
Chapter 7 Toward Building Sector Energy Transition
7.1 Buildings, Energy, and Emissions
7.1.1 Energy
7.1.1.1 The Current Global Situation
7.1.1.2 Energy Consumption by Age Class
7.1.1.3 Energy Consumption by Region and Building Use
7.1.1.4 Energy Consumption by End-Use
7.1.2 Emissions
7.1.2.1 General Framework on Direct, Indirect, and Embodied Emissions
7.1.2.2 Direct Emissions
7.1.2.3 Indirect Emissions
7.1.2.4 Embodied Emissions
7.1.2.5 Emissions per Capita
7.2 Strategies and Solutions for the Buildings Sector
7.2.1 Electrification of the Buildings Sector
7.2.2 Toward a Sustainable Architecture
7.2.3 From Smart Building to Smart City
7.2.4 Sustainable Design Approach
7.2.4.1 Passive Building Solutions
7.2.4.2 High-Efficiency Technical and Control Systems
7.2.4.3 Renewable Energy Production and Self-Consumption
7.2.5 Strategic Technologies
7.2.5.1 Sustainable Envelope Technologies
7.2.5.2 Building Integrated RES
7.2.5.3 Heat Pumps
7.2.5.4 Building Automation
7.2.5.5 Energy Storage
7.2.5.6 Energy Networks
7.3 Actions
7.3.1 Research, Development, and Application
7.3.2 Cultural Switch
7.3.3 Capacity Building
7.3.4 Policy
7.3.5 Incentives and Financing
7.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8 Electric Vehicles and Future of Transport Sector
8.1 Basic Descriptions, History, and Definition of Electric Vehicle
8.2 State of Art on EVs Technology and Merits & Demerits of EVs
8.3 EV Types and Topologies: HEVs, BEVs, and FCEVs
8.4 Heart, Brain, and Muscle: Batteries, Management System, and Electric Motor
8.5 Control Strategies of EVs and Autonomous (Self-Driving) Vehicles
8.6 General Conclusion and Further Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
Chapter 9 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Hydrogen Production by Fuel Cell Electrolysis
9.2.1 Alkaline Water Electrolysis Cell
9.2.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolysis Cell
9.2.3 High-Temperature Electrolysis Using SOEC or PCEC
9.3 Hydrogen Storage and Transportation
9.3.1 Compressed Gas Storage
9.3.2 Liquefied Hydrogen Storage
9.3.3 Solid-State Hydrogen Storage
9.4 Fuel Cell Technologies
9.4.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
9.4.2 Alkaline Fuel Cell
9.4.3 Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells
9.4.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
9.4.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
9.4.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
9.4.7 Proton Ceramics Fuel Cells
9.5 Global Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
9.5.1 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
9.5.2 Fuel Cell Buses
9.5.3 Fuel Cell Trucks
9.5.4 Trains and Ships
9.5.5 Airplanes
9.5.6 Stationary Applications of Fuel Cells
9.6 Fuel Cell Challenges
9.6.1 Cost Challenges
9.6.2 Reliability and Durability Challenges
9.7 Market and Policy Trends about Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
9.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Energy Storage Systems
10.1 History of Energy Storage
10.2 Energy Storage Systems
10.3 Thermal Energy Storage
10.3.1 Solar Thermal Energy
10.3.2 Geothermal Energy
10.3.3 Thermal Energy Storage Systems
10.4 Mechanical Energy Storage
10.4.1 Flywheel Energy Storage
10.4.2 Pumped Hydro Energy Storage
10.4.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage
10.5 Electromagnetic Energy Storage
10.6 Electrochemical Energy Storage
10.6.1 Supercapacitors
10.6.1.1 Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors
10.6.1.2 Charge Storage Mechanism
10.6.1.3 Dynamics of Charging and Discharging
10.6.1.4 Oxide-Based Supercapacitors
10.6.1.5 The Mechanism of Pseudo-Capacitors
10.6.1.6 Pseudo-intercalation Reactions
10.6.1.7 Hybrid Supercapacitors
10.6.2 Batteries
10.6.2.1 Lead Batteries
10.6.2.2 Working Mechanism of Lead Batteries
10.6.2.3 Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries
10.6.2.4 Working Mechanism of Vanadium Flow Redox Batteries
10.6.2.5 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Batteries
10.6.2.6 Working Mechanism of Ni-Cd Batteries
10.6.2.7 Sodium Sulfur (NaS) Batteries
10.6.2.8 Working Mechanism of Sodium Sulfur Batteries
10.6.2.9 Lithium-Ion Batteries
10.7 Next-Generation Batteries Technology
10.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Lithium-Based Battery Systems: Technological and Environmental Challenges and Opportunities
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Energy Storage Systems
11.2.1 Battery Systems
11.3 Lithium-Based Battery Systems
11.3.1 Lithium-Based Battery Types
11.3.1.1 Lithium-Polymer Batteries
11.3.1.2 Lithium-Silicon Batteries
11.3.1.3 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
11.3.1.4 Lithium-Air Batteries
11.3.2 Comparative Analyses of the Different Battery Types
11.4 Lithium Sources, Extraction, and Price
11.5 Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries
11.6 Environmental Issues Related to Lithium Batteries
11.7 Lifecycle Assessment and Economic Analysis
11.7.1 Market Developments and Trends
11.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12 Demand-Side Management in Smart Grids
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Need for Demand-Side Management
12.3 DSM Components
12.4 Types of Demand-Side Management
12.4.1 Energy Efficiency (EE) and Energy Conservation (EC) Programs
12.4.2 Demand Response (DR) Programs
12.4.2.1 Incentive-Based DR Programs
12.4.2.2 Price-Based DR Programs
12.4.2.3 Costs and Benefits Involved in DR Programs
12.4.3 Energy Storage (ES) Programs
12.5 DSM and Power Market
12.6 DSM Barriers and Enablers
12.7 DSM in Smart Buildings
12.8 Demand Characterization
12.9 Demand Flexibility Definitions
12.10 Categories of Flexibility
12.10.1 Flexibility for Power
12.10.2 Flexibility for Energy
12.10.3 Flexibility for Transfer Capacity
12.10.4 Flexibility for Voltage
12.11 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Digitalization in the Energy Sector
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Digitalization Trends
13.2.1 Supply-Side Potential
13.2.2 Demand-Side Opportunities
13.2.3 System Supporting Opportunities
13.3 Digitalization Technologies and Their Impact
13.4 Concerns and Challenges
13.4.1 Fundamental Privacy and Security Challenges and Opportunities
13.4.2 Individual Cybersafety
13.4.3 Need for Proactive Policies on Cybersecurity at Regional and National Levels
13.4.4 Cloud-Based Digital Solution Could Increase Cyberattack Potentials
13.4.5 Benefits of Applying Cloud Solutions
13.4.6 Using AI to Increase Cybersecurity
13.4.7 Strengthening End-User Responsible Practice to Increase Cybersecurity and Safety
13.5 The Future of Digitalization in the Energy Sector
13.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Application of Blockchain for Energy Transition Systems
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Fundamentals of Blockchain
14.3 Applications in the Energy Transition
14.3.1 Peer-to-Peer Trading and Market Applications
14.3.2 Energy Management Systems and Technical Coordination
14.4 Future Outlook and Potential
14.5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Machine Learning Applications in the Petroleum Industry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Machine Learning and Its Applications in the Upstream Petroleum Industry
15.3 Data Preparation and Preprocessing for Models Training
15.4 Prediction of the Borehole Drillability
15.5 Estimation of Petrophysical Properties through Machine Learning Application
15.5.1 Prediction of the Reservoir Porosity
15.5.2 Prediction of Reservoir Permeability
15.6 Use of Machine Learning Techniques in Forecasting and Optimizing the Oil and Gas Production
15.6.1 History Matching and Production Profile Forecasting
15.6.2 Hydrocarbon Production Optimization
15.7 Conclusion
References
Section III: energy transition: Policies and Prospects
Chapter 16 Energy and Sustainable Development
16.1 Evolution of Sustainable Development
16.2 Principles and Types of Sustainable Development
16.2.1 Salient Principles of Sustainable Development
16.2.2 Types of Sustainable Development
16.2.2.1 Economic Sustainability
16.2.2.2 Social Sustainability
16.2.2.3 Environmental Sustainability
16.3 Energy Types and Sources
16.3.1 Energy Types
16.3.1.1 Primary Energy
16.3.1.2 Secondary Energy
16.3.2 Energy Sources
16.3.2.1 Nonrenewable Energy
16.3.2.2 Renewable Energy
16.4 Role of Energy in Sustainable Development
16.4.1 Energy and Economy
16.4.2 Energy and Society
16.4.3 Energy and Environment
16.5 Sustainable Development in Developing and Developed Countries
16.5.1 Sweden
16.5.2 Canada
16.5.3 India
16.5.4 Europe’s Moment
16.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17 Economics of Energy and Green Growth: Decoupling Debate
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Conceptual Analysis of Energy Economics and Green Growth
17.2.1 Green Growth Indicators
17.3 Introducing the Concept of Decoupling
17.4 Comparison with Statistical Indicators
17.5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Chapter 18 Investigation into the Effects of Energy Transition in Terms of Economic Growth
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Framework of Energy Transition
18.2.1 Historical Developments and Trends
18.2.2 Opportunities and Challenges
18.3 Effects of Energy Transition in Terms of Economic Growth
18.4 Literature Review
18.5 Case Study
18.5.1 Model and Data
18.5.2 Empirical Strategy
18.5.2.1 Cross-Sectional Dependence and Panel Unit Root Tests
18.5.2.2 Panel Cointegration Test and Long-Term Estimates
18.5.2.3 Panel Causality Test
18.6 Discussion
18.7 Conclusion and Policy Implications
Bibliography
Chapter 19 Energy Security: Role of Renewable and Low-Carbon Technologies
19.1 Introduction. Trends and Factors That Facilitate or Hinder the Application of RES and Low-Carbon Technologies
19.2 An Overview of the Dominant Renewable and Low-Carbon Technologies
19.3 Nations Leading in Renewable and Low-Carbon Technologies
19.4 The Future Revolutionary Technologies That Will Alter Security Architecture
19.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 20 Promotion of Decarbonization by Private Sector’s Approaches
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Divestment
20.2.1 Divestment Background
20.2.2 The Current Situation of Divestment
20.2.3 Criticisms against Divestment
20.2.4 New Business Opportunities Obtained from Divestment
20.3 Consortia and Initiatives
20.3.1 The Science Based Targets Initiatives (SBTi)
20.3.1.1 SBTi Background
20.3.1.2 The Current Situation of SBTi
20.3.1.3 Benefits of SBTi
20.3.1.4 Challenges of SBTi
20.3.2 Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures (TCFD)
20.3.2.1 TCFD Background
20.3.2.2 The Current Situation of TCFD
20.3.2.3 Benefits of TCFD
20.3.2.4 Challenges of TCFD
20.3.3 RE100
20.3.3.1 RE100 Background
20.3.3.2 The Current Situation of RE100
20.3.3.3 Benefits of RE100
20.3.3.4 Challenges of RE100
20.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21 Electrification and Targets in Developing Countries
21.1 Electrification and Sustainable Development
21.2 Energy Access in Developing Countries
21.3 Policies Supporting Electrification in Developing Countries
21.3.1 China
21.3.2 India
21.3.3 Mexico
21.4 Financing Mechanism for Sustainable Electrification
21.5 Way Forward: Beyond Connectivity
21.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22 Regional Energy Policies, Trade and Energy Security in South Asia: A Quest for Diplomacy
22.1 Energy Trade and Security in South Asia
22.2 Background
22.3 Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)
22.4 Rational of Regional Energy Policies for Energy Trade, Security, and Environmental Sustainability in South Asia
22.4.1 Technical Aspects
22.4.2 Economic Aspects
22.4.3 Environmental Aspects
22.4.4 Social Aspects
22.4.5 Political Aspects
22.5 Environmental Diplomacy and Dispute Settlement
22.6 Conclusions
22.6.1 Policy Considerations
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 23 Electricity Sector Reforms, Private Sector Participation and Electricity Sector Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Literature Review
23.2.1 Productivity and Economic Efficiency
23.2.2 Quality of Service and System Efficiency
23.2.3 Electricity Pricing
23.2.4 Electricity Access
23.3 Methodology
23.3.1 Data
23.3.2 Measurement of Variables
23.3.3 Empirical Specification
23.4 Results
23.4.1 Overview of the Data
23.4.2 Effects of Private Sector Participation on Electricity Sector Performance
23.4.3 Heterogeneous Effects
23.4.4 Robustness Checks
23.5 Discussion of Findings
23.6 Conclusions, Policy Implications and Recommendations
23.6.1 Hybrid Electricity Markets
23.6.2 Complementary Regulatory Frameworks
Appendix
References
Chapter 24 Electrification and Energy Transition in Sub - Saharan Africa: Status, Issues and Effects, from a Source-to-Household Perspective
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Energy Security in Sub-Saharan Countries
24.2.1 Electrification in Sub-Saharan African Countries
24.2.2 Nexus between Electrification and Progress Indicators of Sub-Saharan Africa
24.2.3 Issues Associated with Poor Electricity Access to the People
24.3 Comparison of Sub-Saharan Countries with the World
24.4 Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
24.4.1 Recommendations for Electricity Planning and Implementation
References
Chapter 25 The Role of Nuclear Power under the Energy Transition: An Unsustainable Approach to Taiwan’s Nuclear-Free Homeland By 2025?
25.1 Introduction
25.2 The Evolution of the Concept of Nuclear-Free Homeland in Taiwan
25.2.1 Proposal of Nuclear Phase-Out Bill in 2001
25.2.2 Integration into Environmental Basic Act in 2002
25.2.3 Proposal of Nuclear-Free Homeland Bill of 2003
25.2.4 Proposal of the Nuclear-Free Homeland Bill since 2012
25.2.5 After 2016: The Concept of a Nuclear-Free Homeland in the Taiwan Electricity Act Amendment: Toward a Liberalized and Green Energy Market (January 23, 2017)
25.2.5.1 Zero Nuclear Power Generation by 2025
25.2.5.2 Fate of the Three Nuclear Power Plants
25.3 Compatibility of Nuclear-Free Homeland with SDGs
25.3.1 Decision-Making Process of Nuclear-Free Homeland
25.3.2 Renewable Development and SDGs
25.3.3 Third LNG Terminal Turmoil and its Replacement
25.3.4 Lack of Coal Phase-Out Schedule
25.3.5 No Plan and Law to Deal with Nuclear Legacy
25.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
Index