Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction
1 Energy Governance in Europe: Introduction
Introduction
Energy Systems and the Governance of Transitions
Conceptual Topics of Energy Governance
European Energy Governance
Country Studies on Energy Governance
Structures and Legacies
Transition of Energy Systems
The Transition of Socio-technical Regimes
Drivers of Energy Transitions
Instruments of Energy Governance and Energy Transitions
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
Part II: Energy Governance Research: Theories, Issues, and Problems
2 Transition of Energy Systems: Patterns of Stability and Change
Introduction
Analyses of Socio-technical Regimes and Transitions
Energy Regimes
Stability and Change
Stabilizing Factors
Resistance Based on Economic Interests (Geels and Kemp 2012; Haas and Sander 2016)
Regulation and Laws that Create Market Entry Barriers (Geels and Kemp 2012)
Institutional Reproduction of the Regime (Geels and Kemp 2012; Andrews-Speed 2016)
Path Dependency and Large Technical Systems: Economics of Scale (Hughes 1983; Unruh 2000; Beyer 2005; Geels and Kemp 2012)
Large Corporations and Tight Interrelationship Between Economy and the State (Hennicke and Müller 2005; Berlo and Wagner 2015)
Emotional Factors (Bakke 2016)
Destabilizing Factors
Strong Social Movements (Byzio et al. 2002; Mautz et al. 2008; Neukirch 2010, 2018; Andrews-Speed 2016)
Ecological Pioneers (Mautz et al. 2008; Berlo and Wagner 2015)
Active Support by Legislation/Niche Policies (Mautz et al. 2008; Andrews-Speed 2016)
Governance of Transition (Meadowcroft 2009; Kuzemko et al. 2015)
Janus-Faced Factors
Narratives (Hermwille 2016)
New Technologies (Dolata 2013; Fouquet 2016)
External Shocks and Landscape Pressure (Hermwille 2016; Fouquet 2016)
Consumer Lifestyles (Geels and Kemp 2012)
Adaptive Capacities and the Role of the Incumbents (Kuzemko et al. 2015; Fouquet 2016)
Variants of Transition
Application to the Dynamics of Energy Regimes
France: From Fossil Fuels to Nuclear Power (1974-1996)
Great Britain: Dash for Gas and the Decline of Coal (1987-1997)
Germany: Energy Transition (Since the Mid-1970s)
Denmark: Energy Transition (Since the Mid-1970s)
Discussion
Scope of Transition Pathways MLP 1-4
Avoiding Oversimplifications
Insufficient or Unclear Conceptualization of Actors
Modes of Institutional Change: Low Degree of Selectivity?
Summary
Cross-References
References
3 Energy Democracy and Participation in Energy Transitions
Introduction
Energy Democracy and Participatory Governance
Citizen Participation in Energy Transformation Reviewed
Community Energy
Participation in the Context of Spatial Planning
Participation in Energy Policy-Making at the Large-Scale
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
4 Energy Poverty
Introduction
How to Define and Measure Energy Poverty
Main Drivers of Energy Poverty
Income and Energy Poverty
Policy Instruments and Their Effectiveness
Energy Poverty and Social Rights
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
5 Monitoring Energy Policy
Introduction
Policy Monitoring: Administrative Task or Political Exercise?
Steering and Control
Monitoring Costs
Cases in Energy Policy Monitoring
Monitoring at the International Level: The UNFCCC and Beyond
The Emergence and Significance of Monitoring Energy Policy in Europe
The Monitoring Mechanism
Monitoring Renewable Energy Policy
Monitoring Energy Efficiency Policy
Monitoring at the Member State Level: United Kingdom and Germany
United Kingdom
Germany
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
6 Extending Energy Policy: The Challenge of Sector Integration
Introduction
Definition
Definition of Sector Coupling
Analysis of Concept Development Based on Existing Definitions
The Origin and Purpose of Sector Coupling as the ``Driving Force´´ of the Definition
The Concept of Sectors
The Concept of Coupling
Summary
Governance Structures for ``Good´´ Sector Coupling
Purpose and Objectives of Sector Coupling
Principles of ``Good´´ Sector Coupling
Flexibility
Energy Efficiency
Additionality
Other Principles
Sector Coupling in the Broader Context of Sustainability
Summary - Normative Governance for ``Good´´ Sector Coupling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part III: European Governance
7 European Union Energy Policy: A Discourse Perspective
Introduction
Discourses and Frames Within EU Energy Policy
EC Energy Policy: Born in the Frame of Competitiveness
International Energy Threats and the Framing of Security in EC Energy Policy
The Emergence of the Sustainability Frame in the 1990s
The Security of Supply and Solidarity Nexus in an Enlarged EU
The Cleavage Between the Northern and Western and (Middle) Eastern Member States: Security of Supply Versus Sustainability
``Harder Soft Governance´´ Within the Energy Union and the European Green Deal as Backup for the Sustainability Frame
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
8 Energy Policies in the EU: A Fiscal Federalism Perspective
Introduction
The Theory of Fiscal Federalism
Decision-making: Centralized or Decentralized?
Policies: Homogeneous or Heterogeneous?
Beyond Harmonization: The Case of Convergence
A Brief Positive Overview of Energy Policies in the EU
Case Study: Renewable Energy Policies
Decision-making on RES Policies: Centralized or Decentralized?
RES Policies: Homogeneous or Heterogeneous?
Is There Convergence of RES Policies in the EU?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
9 The EU in Global Energy Governance
Introduction
The Legal and Political Foundation of the EU´s External Energy Governance
EU Competences on External Energy Policies over Time
The Role of EU Institutions in External Energy Policies
EU External Energy Instruments
The EU in the Global Energy Governance Landscape
Energy Security
Environmental Sustainability
Competitiveness
Challenges to EU External Energy Action in a Fragmented Global Landscape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Secondary Literature
Primary (EU) Sources
10 EU Energy Cooperation with Emerging Powers: Brazil, India, China, and South Africa
Introduction
Theoretical and Methodological Framework
EU-BICS Bilateral Energy Dialogues
EU-Brazil Energy Dialogue
EU-India Energy Dialogue
EU-China Energy Dialogue
EU-South Africa Energy Dialogue
Conclusions
Cross-References
Annex 1: Network Actors
EU Actors for All Four Dialogues
Brazil-EU Energy Dialogue
India-EU Energy Dialogue
China-EU Energy Dialogue
South Africa-EU Energy Dialogue
References
11 EU-Russia Energy Relations
Introduction
Recent Scholarly Research and Debates
EU-Russia Energy Relations in a Historical Perspective
EU-Russia Energy Trade and the Ukraine Crisis
Recent Developments in EU-Russia Gas Trade
New Projects for EU-Russia Gas Trade: Yamal LNG and TurkStream
The Nord Stream 2 Controversy
Ukraine´s Current and Future Role in EU-Russia Energy Trade
Settling Disputes: The Antitrust and WTO Cases
Nuclear Power
Renewable Energy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
12 EU-US and EU-Canada Energy Relations
Introduction
Historical Developments: Creating Path Dependencies
United States
Canada
Rivalry and Partnership
Transatlantic Energy Relations: Multiple Issues and Levels of Engagement
The Nature of Transatlantic Energy Relations
The United States
Canada
The United States, Canada, the European Union, and Multilevel Energy Governance
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
13 Energy Relations in the EU Eastern Partnership
Introduction
The European Neighbourhood Policy and the Eastern Partnership
Energy Relations Between the European Union and the Eastern Partnership Countries
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Georgia
Republic of Moldova
Ukraine
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
14 Energy Relations of the EU and its Southern Neighborhood
Introduction
Current Research and New Research Directions
EU Cooperation with the Southern Neighborhood
Multilateral Cooperation: From the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP) to the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM)
Bilateral Cooperation: The European Neighborhood Policy (ENP)
The European Neighborhood Instrument (ENI)
The Role of Energy in the EU´s Partnership with the Southern Neighborhood
EU-Southern Neighborhood Energy Relations in a Historical Perspective
Recent Developments and Challenges
Current Focus
Fossil Fuels Oil and Gas
Outlook for Relations
Renewables
Outlook for Relations
Nuclear
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
15 The Energy Charter Treaty: Old and New Dilemmas in Global Energy Governance
Introduction
Origins and Ratification (1990s): A Special Creature in the Energy Governance Landscape
The ECT to Test (2000s): Gas Transit Disputes and the Decoupling of Legal Orders
Modernization and the International Energy Charter (Early 2010s): Crisis or Relaunch?
New Contestation Fronts (Late 2010s): Politicization of ISDS and Climate Change
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
16 Sustainable Europe: Narrative Potential in the EU´s Political Communication
Introduction
Outlining Strategic Narratives for the EU: Sustainable Europe?
Narrators and Receivers
Content and Levels
Case Study: ``Sustainable Energy Europe´´
Structure
Life-Cycle of Narratives
Formulation
Projection
Reception
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
17 Clean Energy in the European Green Deal: Perspectives of European Stakeholders
Introduction
Material and Methods
Qualitative Review
Quantitative Review
Results
Qualitative Review
Survey Results
Comparison of Stakeholder and Public Salience
Discussion
Clean Energy Components of the Green Deal
Assessment of Salience
Limitations of This Study and Need for Further Research
Conclusion and Policy Implications
Cross-References
Supplementary Material
References
18 Cities in European Energy and Climate Governance
Introduction
Cities in Energy Sector Development
Cities in European Energy and Climate Governance
Vertical Governance
Horizontal Governance
Integration of Vertical and Horizontal Governance
The Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy
Foundation and Instruments of the Covenant of Mayors
Membership Patterns of the Covenant of Mayors
Governance Achievements and Shortcomings of the Covenant of Mayors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part IV: Country Studies
19 Energy Governance in Armenia
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Armenia
Past Legacies
Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues and Main Political Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Armenian Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Renewable Energy/Regulation Framework
Wind Energy
Solar
Hydropower Energy
Energy Efficiency
Outcomes, Challenges and Prospects for Energy Governance
Cross References
References
20 Energy Governance in Austria
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Austria
Legacies
Composition of Austria´s Energy Mix
Political Institutions and Key Actors
Energy Discourse
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Austria´s Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition in Austria
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transition
Energy Supply
Energy Distribution
Energy Efficiency and Consumption
Outcome, Challenges, and Prospects
Cross-References
References
21 Energy Governance in Azerbaijan
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Azerbaijan
Legacies
The Soviet Legacy of Centralized Management
An Extended Period of Institutional Instability
Primacy of Oil and Gas as Energy Resources
Informal Patterns, Corruption, and Kleptocracy
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments and Issues of Energy Transition Within a Multilevel Context
Drivers and Barriers to the Energy Transition
Heavy Dependence on Oil Revenues as an Obstacle to the Energy Transition
Declining Oil Revenues and Increasing Incentives for Economic Reforms
Growing Demand for Electricity and Aging Infrastructure
Availability of Natural Resources for the Energy Transition
International Cooperation as a Driving Force of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Development of Policies and Strategies
Types of Policy Instruments
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
22 Energy Governance in Belgium
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Belgium
Path Dependencies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Belgium´s Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Nuclear Phaseout
Renewable Electricity
Heat Production
Energy Efficiency
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance in Belgium
Cross-References
References
23 Energy Governance in Croatia
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Croatia
Past Legacies
Composition of Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Coordination of the Instruments and Issues of the Croatian Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transition
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
24 Energy Governance in the Czech Republic
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in the Czech Republic
Past Legacies
Composition of the ``Energy Mix´´
Discourse on Energy Issues
Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Czech Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition and Long-Term Strategies
European Energy Policy
German Energy Policy
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Electricity Supply
Heat Supply
Energy Efficiency
Transport
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects for Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
25 Energy Governance in Denmark
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Denmark
Policy Legacies
The Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Energy Transitions Within a Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Instruments of Energy Transition and Coordination Mechanisms
Regulating the Heating Sector
Regulating the Electricity Sector
Support for Renewable Energies
Energy Efficiency
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospect of Energy Governance
Monitoring of Climate Goals and Sector Integration
Energy Conflicts
Multilevel Governance
Cross-References
References
26 Energy Governance in Finland
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Finland
Patterns of Energy Consumption
The Energy Mix
Discourses on Energy
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination of the Instruments and Issues of Energy Transitions within a Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
The Forestry Problem in Energy Governance
Overall Energy Transitions
Monitoring and Surveillance
Cross-References
References
27 Energy Governance in France
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in France: Legacies of a Centralized and Nuclearized Energy System
Historical Legacies: The Path Toward an ``all nuclear, all electric´´ System
The French Energy Mix: Stability and the Slow Growth of Renewables
Institutions and Actors: Incumbent Resilience and Evolutions
Energy Discourses: From State Modernization to Climate Leadership?
Coordination of the Instruments and Issues of the French Energy Transition
Drivers of the Energy Transition Narrative: The Green Coalition, the EU, and Fukushima
Strategies and Instruments of the Energy Transition
A ``millefeuille´´ of Public Participation Initiatives, Legislation, Strategies, and Targets
Contested Instruments
Horizontal and Vertical Coordination in an Increasingly Multilevel Context
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects: French Energy Governance at the Crossroads
Cross-References
References
28 Energy Governance in Germany
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Germany
Legacies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the German Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of the Energy Transition
Long-Term Strategies
Phase-Out Policies
Nuclear Phase-Out
Coal Phase-Out
Energy Supply
Transmission Grid
Energy Consumption
Energy Consumption in Buildings
Energy Consumption in Mobility
Key Policy Instruments of the Energy Transition
Coordination and Multilevel Governance
Lock-In and Entrenchment of the Feed-In Tariffs
Centralization Through Uneven Development in the Energy Sector
External Influence from Above and Below
Post-Corporatism and Delegation
Challenges of German Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
29 Energy Governance in Greece
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Greece
Path Dependencies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourses on Energy
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Energy Transitions Within a Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments
Renewable Energy Sector
Energy Saving in Buildings
Energy Efficiency in Transport
Energy Efficiency in Industry and Agriculture
Energy Poverty
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects
Cross-References
References
30 Energy Governance in Hungary
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance
Energy Legacies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Political Institutions and Actors
Discourse on Energy Issues
Coordination of the Instruments and Issues of Energy Transitions Within a Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transition
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
31 Energy Governance in Ireland
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Ireland
Ireland´s Economy and Energy System
Ireland´s Overall Approach to Energy Policy
Institutions of Energy Governance
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Irish Energy Transition
Electricity Generation
Heating
Transport
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance in Ireland
Cross-References
References
32 Energy Governance in Italy
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Italy
Path Dependencies
Composition of the ``Energy´´ Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
The Security of Supply and the Nuclear Discourse
Liberalization and Competitiveness. Challenging the Old Paradigms and Creating a New Path
Sustainability, RES, and ``Clean´´ Energy Paths: Centralization Versus Decentralization
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Italian Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Instruments of the Energy Transitions
Long-Term Strategies and Programs
Regulatory Instruments
RES Support Instruments and Incentives
Instruments to Support Energy Efficiency
White Certificates
Economic and Fiscal Incentives
Soft Governance
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
The Supranational Level
The National Level
The Regional Level
Municipal Level
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects
Cross-References
References
33 Energy Governance in Latvia
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance
Legacies/Path Dependencies
Composition of the ``Energy Mix´´
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination of the Instruments and Issues of Energy Issues Within a Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transition
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
34 Energy Governance in Lithuania
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Lithuania
Development of Energy Policy
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Nuclear Power
Perception of Threats to Energy Governance
Policies Regarding the Baltic (Russian Federation) and Ostrovets Nuclear Power Plant in the Republic of Belarus
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Lithuanian Energy Transition
Oil and Gas Infrastructure
The LNG Terminal
Nord Stream 2
Green Energy in Lithuania
Synchronization of the Electricity Network with EU Networks
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects
Cross-References
References
35 Energy Governance in the Netherlands
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in the Netherlands
Legacies
The Energy Mix
Narratives on Energy
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Energy Transitions in the Netherlands
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments
Strategies and Goals
Policy Instruments
Measures of the Energieakkoord 2013-2020 (2023, 2030)
Energy Storage
Coordination Mechanisms
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of the Energy Transition
Annotation
Cross-References
References
36 Energy Governance in Norway
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Norway
Material Endowments
Composition of the Energy Mix
Norwegian Energy and Climate Discourses
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Norwegian Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Overarching Targets and Timetables
CO2 Taxation and the ETS
Renewable Support Schemes
Energy Consumption
Research and Development
Energy Exports
Drivers of the Energy Transition and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects
Cross-References
References
37 Energy Governance in the Republic of Poland
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance
Past Legacies
Composition of the ``Energy Mix´´
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination of Polish Instruments and Issues of Energy Transitions Within the Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Polish Energy Governance
Monitoring and Surveillance
Sector Integration
Prospects of Polish Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
38 Energy Governance in Portugal
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Portugal
Legacies of Energy Governance
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Government
Administrative Actors
Green Parties and the Environmental Movement
Transmission and Distribution Companies
Energy Generation and Retailing Companies
Associations
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Portuguese Energy Transition
Drivers of the Energy Transition
Liberalization Process
Renewable Energy Policy
Strategies and Instruments
Feed-In Tariffs
Renewable Energy Auctions (For Solar)
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance in Portugal
Outcomes
Challenges
Prospects
Cross-References
References
Legislation
39 Energy Governance in Romania
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Romania
Past Legacies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Energy Discourses
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Romanian Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
The Lasting Appeal of Hydro Power
The Boom and Bust of Renewables
High Expectations and the Nuclear Sector
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects for Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
40 Energy Governance in Russia: From a Fossil to a Green Giant?
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Russia
Path Dependencies
Composition of the ``Energy Mix´´
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the Russian Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transition
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Multilevel Energy Governance: Gas vs. Bioenergy
Outcomes: Challenges and Prospects of Energy Governance
Monitoring and Surveillance
Sector Integration and Conflicts
Cross-References
References
41 Energy Governance in Serbia
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Serbia: Legacies from the Past
Energy Mix and Path Dependence: Relying on Coal and Large Hydropower
War Legacy and the Lack of Regional Energy Cooperation
Energy Narratives
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Energy Transitions within a Multilevel Context
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transition
Coordination Mechanisms and Multi-Level Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
42 Energy Governance in Slovakia
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Slovakia
Past Legacies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of Slovak Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Nuclear Decommissioning
Renewable Sources of Energy
Coal Phase-Out
Energy Efficiency
Electromobility
Political Actors and Policy Coordination
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects for Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
43 Energy Governance in Slovenia
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Slovenia
Legacies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of The Slovenian Energy Transition
Strategic and Legal Framework of Slovenian Energy Governance
Political Actors and Policy Coordination
Key Drivers and Issues of Energy Transition
Nuclear Energy: From the Extension of the Operation of the Existing Unit to the Construction of a New Nuclear Unit?
Coal Phaseout
Further Deployment of Renewable Energy
Energy Efficiency
Transport and Electromobility
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
44 Energy Governance in Spain
Introduction
General conditions of Energy Governance in Spain
Legacies of the Energy System
Multilevel Governance
Institutions for Energy Governance in Spain
Actors for Energy Governance in Spain
Other Actors
Coordination, Instruments and Issues of the Spanish Energy Transition
External Constraints of the Energy Transition
European Climate Policy and Security of Supply Policy
State of the Technology for Electricity Generation from Renewable Sources, the Internet of Things and the EU´s Winter Package
Internal Constraints of the Energy Transition
The Iberian Peninsula Behaves Like an Island in Energy Matters and in the Transportation of Goods by Rail
Electric Energy Pricing Policy
Outcomes, Challenges and Prospects of the Energy Transition in Spain
Energy Efficiency in Spain. Trends by Sector
Sources of Energy in the Productive Sectors
Demand for Petroleum Products
Cross-References
References
45 Energy Governance in Sweden
Introduction
The General State of Energy Governance in Sweden
Legacies of Swedish Energy Governance
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Drivers of the Swedish Energy Transition
Drivers of the Energy Transition
Strategies, Instruments, and Coordinating Mechanisms
Cross-Sectoral Policy Instruments
Electricity
Transportation
Industry
Buildings
Swedish National Energy Governance and EU
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects
Developments Toward European and National Targets
Toward a Power Sector Based on Renewable Energy
The Future Role of Bioenergy
The Main Challenges of Energy Transition in Energy-Intensive Industries and the Transport Sector
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
46 Energy Governance in Switzerland
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in Switzerland
Energy Policy Framework Conditions
Federalism
Direct Democracy
System of Concordance
Natural Framework Conditions
Energy and Climate Debate
Liberalization of the Swiss Electricity Market
Nuclear Energy Debate
Climate Policy
Institutions and Stakeholders
State Institutions and Stakeholders
National Level
Cantonal Level
Municipal Level
Interest Groups
Energy Sector
Environmental and Climate Organizations
The People
Issues, Instruments, and Coordination of the Swiss Energy Transition
Issues of Energy Transitions
Instruments of Energy Transitions
Heating
Electricity
Mobility
Research
Coordination
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects
Outcomes
Challenges
Prospects
Cross-References
References
47 Energy Governance in Turkey
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance
Legacies/Path Dependencies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourses/Narratives on Turkey´s Energy Policy
Energy Security and Competitiveness
Ecological Sustainability/Energy Equity
Political Institutions and Actors
Instruments and Coordination of the Turkish Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Internal Driver
External Drivers
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Electricity Market Liberalization
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Incentive Mechanism
Natural Gas Market Liberalization
Coordination Mechanisms and Issues of Multilevel Governance
Oil Storage Activities
Natural Gas Storage
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
48 Energy Governance in the United Kingdom
Introduction
General Conditions of Energy Governance in the UK
Legacies
Composition of the Energy Mix
Discourse on Energy Issues
Political Institutions and Actors
Coordination, Instruments, and Issues of the UK Energy Transition
Drivers of Energy Transition
Strategies and Instruments of Energy Transitions
Electricity Generation
Heat Production
Energy Efficiency
Transport
Coordination Mechanisms and Multilevel Governance
Outcomes, Challenges, and Prospects of Energy Governance
Cross-References
References
Part V: Comparison and Conclusion
49 Energy Governance in Europe: Country Comparison and Conclusion
Introduction
Long-Term Development of the European Energy Mix
Solid Fossil Fuels
Oil, Petroleum, and Natural Gas
Nuclear Energy
Renewable Energy
Governance and Policy Instruments of Transition
Transition Outcomes
Conclusion: An Energy Mix and Energy Governance for Climate Neutrality?
Cross-References
References
Index
