Preface
Contents
About the Editors-in-Chief
About the Section Editors
Contributors
1 Education Systems in South Asia
Introduction
Defining the Region
Society and Culture
Demography and Development
Education in South Asia
An Overview of the Handbook
Conclusion: Challenges and Ways Ahead
Cross-References
References
Section I: Indigenous Education Traditions
2 Indigenous Education Practices
Conclusion
3 Philosophical Education in Traditional and Buddhist Schools of Thought in South Asia
Introduction
Part 1: The Tradition of Education: An Overview from Textual Sources
The Teaching, the Taught, and the Teacher
The Giving and Taking of Fees
Learning of the Here and Learning of the Beyond
Informal Methods of Philosophical Education:
Philosophy for the Public
Part 2: Traditional Buddhist Education
Traditional Buddhist Education: Buddha as a Teacher
The Lone Wandering Monk and the Sangha: Teachers After the Buddha
Stories and Pedagogy
Conclusion
References
4 Jain Education in South Asia
Part I: Early Voices of Jain Education
Studying as a Form of Asceticism
Appropriate Study Places According to the Ācārāga Sutra
A Monastic Day According to the Uttarādhyayana Sutra
Student-Teacher Etiquette
Part II: Contemporary Jain Education
The Role of the Family in the Education of a Young Jain
Family and Food
Family and Temple Worship
Jain Schools
Higher Education
Pathshalas
Part III: Jain Curricula
Liturgies
Theology, Cosmology, and Ontology
Conclusion
Endnotes
Cross-References
References
5 Roadmap for Ayurveda Education in Modern India
Introduction
Lessons from the History and Evolution of Ayurveda Education
The Core Features, Pedagogy, Epistemology, and Ontology Underlying Ayurveda Knowledge System and Its Transmission
Postcolonial Profile of Ayurveda Education in India
Modernizing Ayurveda Education in the Twenty-First Century
6 Practices of Music Education in Gurukul and Related Systems
Introduction
Sound
Guru-Shishya Parampara
Memory
Components of Training
Listening
Voice Training
Melodic Fundamentals
Rāga
Treatment of Time
Compositions
Improvisation
Performance
Evaluation
The Contemporary Gurukul: Features and Challenges
Conclusion
References
7 Contemporary Movement Arts Practices and Traditional Somatic Education
Introduction
Education in Indian Physical and Performance Traditions
Multi-perceptual Imagination and Predetermined Aesthetics
Categorization and Classification
Kalarippayattu (Martial Art)
Structure of the Education
Body and Training Arena
Genealogy and Characteristics of Kalarippayattu
Categories of Kalarippayattu Training
Ashta Vativukal (8 essentialized animal postures)
Body Preparation Exercises and Oil Massage
Oil Massage
Meyppayattu Series (Sequences to Prepare the Body)
Kolthaari
Angathaari
Verumkai (Bare-Hand Technique)
Kalari Chikitsa
Kalarippayattu Influencing Dance
Bharatanatyam (Classical Dance)
Brief Historical Background
Education in Bharatanatyam
Categorization and the Structure of Bharatanatyam
Physical Training
Abhinaya (Enactment)
Music
Ouchitya (Appropriateness)
Kootiyattam and Kathakali (Dance Theater Traditions)
Brief Background
Education and Training
Education at Attakkalari to Become a Contemporary Dance Artist
Context
Body Preparation for Contemporary Dance/Movement Arts
Specificities of Pedagogy for Contemporary Dance at Attakkalari
Somatic Training from Traditional Forms for Contemporary Practices
Reception of Dance and Movement Arts
8 Reflections on Theatre Education
Introduction
Introducing the Theatre Institutions
Theatre Pedagogy in Ninasam
Learning Navarasasadhana at Natanakairali
``Source of Performance Energy´´ Workshop at Adishakti
Breath, Emotions, and Performative Memories
Teaching Methodology for Contemporary Acting
Working with Imagination
A New Body Vocabulary
Engaging with Theory
Back to Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Conclusion
References
9 Becoming a Kattaikkuttu Performer
Introduction
Traditional Training Trajectory
How Oral is Kattaikkuttu?
Flexibility and Kattaikkuttu´s Oral Reservoir
Contexts for Transmission and Training
Practice-Based Knowledge
Career Stages
Training at the Kattaikkuttu Gurukulam
Conclusion
End notes
References
10 Indigenous Learning in Tribal Communities
Indigenous Knowledge and Tribal Ontologies
The Santal Web of Knowledge and Identity and Literacy: bidia and ol chiki
Children´s Culture
Ancestral Knowledge
Everyday Activities, Observation, and Intuition
Mother Tongue and Identity
Transition and Change
Culture of Learning and the Curriculum
Concluding Reflections on Bridging Worlds
References
11 South Asian Education Thinkers
Introduction
M K Gandhi
B R Ambedkar
Vivekananda
Tagore
Sri Aurobindo
Krishnamurti
Conclusion
References
Section II: History of Education
12 The History of Education in South Asia
Sanskrit Education: The Vedic Period, c. 1500 BCE to 300 CE
The Buddhist Period, c. 500 BCE to 300 CE
The Classical Period, c. 300 to 700 CE
Islamic and Vernacular Education, c. 1000 CE Onward
Modern India
Conclusion
References
13 South Asian Islamic Education in the Precolonial, Colonial, and Postcolonial Periods
Introduction
Precolonial Islamic Education: Overall Epistemology, Philosophy, and Social Relations
Two Precolonial Madrasas: Madrasa Rahimiyya and Farangi Mahall
Colonial-Era Islamic Reform: Deoband
Colonial-Era Islamic Reform: Barelwi, Ahl-i Hadith, and Shi`i Education
Postcolonial Muslim Women´s Education
Conclusion
References
14 History of Protestant Missionary Education in India
English Versus Vernacular Education
Privatized Vernacular Schooling: Woods Despatch of 1854
Modern Pedagogy
Language Primers and Books
Object Lessons and Science
From Monitors to the Trained Christian Teacher
Girl´s Education
Conclusion
References
15 North Indian Educational Liminalities
The Great Learning
Theorizing About Education on the Subcontinent
The Punjab and Education, 1854-9
Two Audacious Thinkers and Strategists
Henry Reid
William Arnold
Punjabi Imperatives
Halkabandi´s Implementation in the Punjab
The New Curriculum, 1857-1859
The Ending of the Vision, 1860-1861
Cross-References
References
16 Nationalist Education
Introduction
Cross-References
References
17 History of Colonial Education
Introduction
Traditional Debates
Colonial Education
Other Educational Actors
Knowledge and Western Influence
Reality of Education
Marginalized Communities
Non-school Education
Childhood and Education
Summary and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section III: School Education Systems and Policies
18 School Education Systems and Policies in South Asia
Introduction
Overview of Education in South Asia
Comparative Perspectives
Key Themes
Colonial Influences
Political Dynamics
Natural Disasters
Education Reforms
Ensuring Access and Equity
School Types
Language and Curriculum
Teachers
Examinations
Decentralization
Financial Allocations
Role of International Aid
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
19 School Education in Afghanistan
Introduction
A Brief History of Modern Education in Afghanistan
Recent History
The Education System: Structure and Types
General Education
Preschool
Primary Education
Secondary Education
Islamic Education
Informal Mosque Schools
Madrassas
Community-Based Education Programs
Private Schools
The Curriculum
Languages of Instruction
Information and Communications Technology in Education
Challenges in Implementing ICT in Education
Enabling Access to Education for All
Gender and Education: Girls´ Participation in Schooling
Challenges in the Education of Girls
Education of Children with Disabilities
Regional Inequities in Educational Provision
Role of the State and Nongovernment Organizations
Governance and Administration
Nongovernment Organizations (NGOs)
Legal Frameworks
Formal Teacher Education and Training
University Teacher Training Courses
Number of Teachers and Female Teachers
Transition from General Education to Higher Education
Access to Higher Education
Effectiveness
Meeting the Challenges of Education for All in Afghanistan
The Need for Transparency
Government Policies and Teacher Quality
Concluding Comments
The Impact of Continuing Instability
References
20 School Education System in Bangladesh
Introduction
History of Education in Bangladesh
Before 1947
From 1947 to 1971
Postindependence (After 1971)
Structure of School Education in Bangladesh
Types of Schools
State Schools
Private Schools
Private English-Medium Schools (EMS)
Madrasa
Technical and Vocational Education
Nonformal Education
Education Governance Provision, Regulation, and Funding
Curriculum
Preprimary Education
Primary Education
Secondary Education
Assessment and Examination
Primary Education
Secondary Education
Access, Participation, Retention, and Transition in General Education
Inclusion/Exclusion of Children Deprived of Education
Government Policies and Programs
Conclusion
References
21 School Education in Bhutan
Introduction
History of School Education in Bhutan
Access, Participation, Retention, Transition
Survival Rate
Completion Rate
Transition Rate
Regional Spread: Availability in Terms of Infrastructure, Differentiated Provision
Role of the State, Aided, Not-for-Profit/Nongovernmental Organization, and Private Providers of Education
Role of Centre and State in Administration, Role of Local Self-Governments
Structure of School Education
Levels of Schooling
Early Childhood Care and Development
Extended Classrooms
Primary Schools
Lower Secondary Schools (VII-VIII)
Middle Secondary Schools (IX-X)
Higher Secondary Schools (XI-XII)
Education Governance: Provision, Regulation, and Funding Systems
Legal and Policy Framework
Legal or Administrative Grievance Redressal
Innovation and Reforms: Quantity to Quality, Learning Outcome, and Methodologies
Curriculum, Assessments, Examination Systems
Curriculum
Differentiated Curriculum
Examination and Assessment
Inclusive Education
Persisting Issues and Challenges
Lack of Resources
Access to Education
Quality of Education
Equity in Education
System Efficiency
Lack of Education Act or Policy
Globalization and Education
Conclusion
References
22 School System and Education Policy in India
Introduction
Education in Colonial India
Structure of Education System in India
National System of Education
Types of Schools
Education Governance Structures
Federalism
Decentralization
Institutional Structures
Role of the State
Education Provision
Education Regulation
Education Financing
Political Economy of Deferred Development of School Education
Legal Mandates and Remedies
Constitutional Provisions on Education
Legislation Related to Education
Legal Remedies and Administrative Redress
Universalization of Education: Programs and Schemes
Curriculum
Teachers and Teacher Education
Examinations and Assessments
Concluding Remarks
References
23 Transforming Education in the Maldives
Introduction
Education in the Maldives
History of Education
The Legal Framework for Education
Current Structure of the Education System
Preschool Education
Primary and Secondary Education
Challenges of the Current Education System
Enrollment, Attendance, and Completion
Educational Attainment
Teacher Demographics
Disparity Between Malé and Atoll Schools
Improving the Quality of Education: Innovation and Reform
Curriculum and Pedagogical Reform
Implementing Classroom Reform: Challenges and Opportunities
Recent Policy Initiatives
Inclusive Education
Diversification of Options at Secondary Level
``Ufaa´´ Office Initiatives
ICT in Education
Education in Small Island States
Cross-References
References
24 Schooling Education in Mauritius
Introduction: Mauritius Under Construction
Regional Legacies of Mauritius: An African and South Asian Country
Structure of This Chapter: Histories, Policies, and Research
Colonized Mauritius
A Polyglot of Historical Powers
A Tapestry of Cultural Heritages
Independent Mauritius
Democracy, Stability, and Development
A Country of the South: External and Internal Colonialisms
Shifting Mauritian Education and Schooling
Schooling Typologies
Public Schools
Private Schools
Private and Nonreligious Schools
The Schooling Curriculum and Teachers
The Trajectory Through Formal Schooling
Pre-primary and Primary Schooling
Secondary Schooling
Political and International Reforms: Shifting Goals for Mauritian Schooling
Localized Systemic Policy Efforts
Changing Policy Toward 9 Years of Continuous Basic Education
Parallel Education
Education Excellence and Equality
Current Reforms in the Mauritian Education System
The Primary School Achievement Certificate
The Extended Programme
Reflections on Policy Reform
Teacher Education and School Curriculum Development
ICT Educationists: Drivers of Change or Agents to Be Changed?
A Perspective on Languages
Concluding Thoughts
References
25 Education of Myanmar
Introduction
An Overview of the Historical Transition of Myanmar Education
The Premodern Era (-1852)
The British Colonial Era (1852-1948)
The Welfare State Government Era (After Independence) (1948-1962)
The Military Regime Era (1962-2011)
Educational Situation Under the Military Regime
The Current Education System
Major Characteristics of the Education System
School System and Types of School
Educational Administration
Educational Finance
Curriculum and Evaluation System
The Capability of School Teachers and the Current Teacher Education System
An Ongoing Educational Reform
Reform of the School System
Reform of the Educational Administration
Reform of the Curriculum and Evaluation System
Reform of the Teacher Education System
Challenges in the Future
References
26 The Status of School Education in Nepal
Introduction
Institutionalization of the Modern School: Developments in the Early 1950s
The System of School Education in Nepal
The Growth in Enrollments
Equity in Education
Improvements in Quality
Constitutional and Legal Frameworks on Education Rights
The Governance of School Education
State Funding for Public Education
The Growing Significance of Education Privatization in Nepal
Challenges and Issues
Conclusion
References
27 School Education System in Pakistan
Introduction to the Context
Policy Overview
Structure, Types, and Size of the School System
Gender and Schooling in Pakistan
Language of Instruction
The Role of the Private Sector
Concluding Reflections
Cross-References
References
28 General Education in Sri Lanka
Introduction
History of General Education
British Influence
Education Post-independence
Education Reform in the 1970s and 1980s
Toward the 1997 Education Reforms
Recent Education Sector Development Frameworks and Programs
Stages of Education and School Types
Patterns of Access and Participation in General Education
Student Enrolment Rates
Student Survival Rates
The Policy Framework to Promote Access and Participation in General Education
Regional Spread of Infrastructure and Differentiated Provision
Curriculum
Primary Education
Junior Secondary Education
Senior Secondary Education
Senior Secondary Education Beyond Grade 11
Assessment and Examinations
Grade 5 Scholarship Examination
General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O Level)
General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE A Level)
National Assessments of Learning
Classroom Assessments
Inclusion and Exclusion
The Role of the Center and the Provinces in Education Administration
Education Governance and Funding Systems
Performance Incentives Within the Public Education System
The Institutional Foundation for Education Service Delivery
Foreign Finance
Current Issues of Education and Policy Needs
Early Childhood Education (ECE)
General Education
Employer Demands
Globalization
International Assessments of Learning Outcomes
Summative Versus Formative Assessment
Conclusion
References
Section IV: Higher Education Systems and Policy
29 Higher Education Systems and Policy in South Asia
Introduction
Some Distinctive Features of Higher Education Systems in Each Country
Gender Equity in Higher Education
Faculty Preparation and Support
Research Focus
Governance of Higher Education
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
30 Nation Building Through Higher Education System Resurgence in Afghanistan
Introduction
History
Entry Requirements
Academic Governance
Supreme Council
Academic Year
Credit System
Grading System
Public or State University
Private University
Organizational Structure
Induction to Higher Education
BA Programs
Master Degree Programs
PhD Programs
Academic Coordination
Academic Appointment
Academic Promotion
Academic Retirement
Program Development
Research and Publication
E-learning
Quality Assurance
Annual Monitoring
Periodic Review
Gender Equity
Autonomy
Conclusion
References
31 Challenges and Developments in the Higher Education System of Bangladesh
Introduction
History of Higher Education in Bangladesh
Structure of Higher Education Systems in Bangladesh
Higher Education Status in Bangladesh
Governance and Regulation of Higher Education System in Bangladesh
Challenges of Higher Education in Bangladesh
The Way Forward
Conclusion
Cross-References
Appendices
References
32 Higher Education in Bhutan
Introduction
History of Higher Education in Bhutan
Overview and Current Status of Higher Education in Bhutan
Access, Participation, Retention, and Transition Practices in Higher Education
Education Governance
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs): Governance Structure and Modus Operandi
Study Programs Offered by the Higher Education Institutions in Bhutan
Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Assessment Systems
Use of Technology in Higher Education
Faculty Preparation, Professional Development, Social and Economic Status, and Career Paths
Research in Higher Education
Internationalization of Higher Education in Bhutan
Quality Initiatives, Reforms, and Innovation
Legal or Administrative Grievance Redressal System for Students, Teachers, and Administrative and Service Staff, With or Witho...
Challenges Facing Higher Education in Bhutan
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
33 The Indian Higher Education System
Introduction
Structure of the Higher Education System: Programs and Enrolment
Undergraduate Education
Professional Education
Postgraduate Education and Research
Role of the Private Sector in Higher Education
Faculty in Higher Education
Technology in Education: Open and Distance Education
Challenges of Higher Education Provisioning
Access and Equity
Institutional Autonomy and Quality-Related Concerns
Vocational Education
Governance and Regulatory Framework
Internationalization
Reforms and the Evolution of the Indian Higher Education System: A Review
The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF)
The National Education Policy 2020 and the Drive Towards Quality Education
Autonomy with Accountability to Institutions and to their Faculty
Restructuring Higher Education Institutions
Governance of Higher Education Institutions
Level-Playing Field for the Private Sector
Energized, Engaged, and Capable Faculty
Liberal Arts Education and a new 4-Year Undergraduate Program
Flexible Duration Undergraduate and Postgraduate Programs
Integration of Vocational and Professional Education
Nurturing the Culture of Research: The National Research Foundation
Financing Higher Education and Research
Reforms in the Governance and Regulation of Higher Education
Ensuring the Success of Policy Implementation
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
34 Developmental Pathway of Higher Education in the Maldives
Introduction: Setting the Context
Towards Massification
Financing Higher Education
Streamlining Institutions and Levels of Qualifications
Enhancing Governance
University Governance in the Maldives
Governance of Colleges and Other Higher Education Institutions
Professional Councils
Quality Assurance
External Quality Assurance
Internal Quality Assurance
Other Contemporary Issues for Consideration
Lack of Diversity in Academic Disciplines
Research Manpower and Doctoral Education
Academic Profession in the Maldives
Use of New Technologies
Expansion of Alternative Delivery Modes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
35 Co-existing Agendas for Higher Education in Mauritius
Introduction to the Mauritian Context
The Political, Demographic, and Economic Profile of the Mauritius
Contemporary Major Challenges
The National Mauritian Higher Education Landscape
Institutional Typologies, Courses, Enrolment, and Modes of Delivery
Tertiary Institutions, Enrolment, Range, and Level of Courses Offered
Publicly Funded Institutions
PFIs Enrolment
Courses Offered at PFIs
Levels of Courses Offered at PFIs
Private Secondary Education Institutions (PSEIs)
PSEIs Enrolment
Distance Education
Governance, Steering, and Planning of Higher Education
Tertiary Education Commission (TEC)
Mauritius Qualifications Authority (MQA)
Structure of Governance within the PFIs
Funding the HE System
Quality Assurance in Higher Education
Graduate Employability
Shifting Historical and HE Policy Directives
Mauritius and Internationalization
Localized Shapers of the HE Policy System
Higher Education as Nation Building?
The Rise of New Orthodoxies
Contemporary Drivers of HE: The Knowledge Hub?
Higher Education as a Corporation
Institutional Impacts of Policy Moves: Two Case Studies
Case One: The University of Mauritius
Case Two: Middlesex International Ltd. (Mauritius)
Conclusion: Creative Growth, Restructuring, and Re-Imaginations of HE
References
36 Myanmar´s Higher Education System
Introduction
Education in Myanmar - A Short, Historical Perspective
Monastic Education in Myanmar
Education in Colonial Period in Myanmar
Education in Post-independence Period 1948-1962
Education in the Post-Independence Period 1962-2016
Education in the Democratic Period from 2016
School Education and Its Influence on Higher Education
Present School System and its Influence on Higher Education
Moving to K-12 and Its Influence on Higher Education
Main Goal of the National Education Strategic Plan 2016-2021
Transformational Shifts to Achieve NESP Goals
Strategies, Components, and End Outcomes to Achieve Transformational Shifts in Higher Education
NESP Articulation of Challenges of Higher Education
Financing the NESP for Higher Education
University Education in Myanmar: Present Status
Absence of Private Universities
Nature of Universities
Centers of Excellence (COE)
Autonomy
Financing
Bachelor´s Degree Programs
Master´s Degree Programs
Doctoral Degree Programs
Higher Education in Myanmar: A High-Level SWOT Analysis
Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
Conclusions
References
37 Nepal´s Higher Education System and Policy
Introduction
Geographic and Demographic Contexts
Historical Background of Higher Education Development in the Country
Higher Education Development, Trends, and Issues
Development of HE Institutions and Student Enrolments
Expansion of Access and Equity
Female Participation in Higher Education and Gender Parity
Issue of Higher Education Development
Unbalanced Regional Growth in Terms of Access
Student Retention
Students Going Abroad for Study in Self-Financed Mode
Access to Technical and Vocational Education
Quality and Efficiency of Higher Education
Teachers in Higher Education in Nepal
Other Issues of Teacher Management
National Initiatives for Higher Education Reform
A Reflection on the Issues and Challenges
Summary/Conclusions
Cross-References
References
38 Pakistan´s Higher Education System
Introduction
Education Under Colonialism
The Hindu-Muslim Split
1947-2001
Early History
HE Faculty Deficit
Secondary School Feeder System
2002-Present
High Growth Phase
Economic Survey, Ministry of Finance
International Rankings
The Balance Sheet
Contemporary Issues
The Quality Conundrum
University-Extremism Nexus
Academic Freedom
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
39 The Sri Lankan Higher Education Journey
Introduction
History of Higher Education
Overview of the Status of Higher Education
Access, Participation, Retention, Transition in Higher Education
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) Involved in the Provision of Quality Education
Types of Education
Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Assessment Systems
Use of Technology in Education Delivery, Education Administration, Governance
Faculty in Higher Education
Research
Internationalization of Higher Education
Education Governance
Challenges in Higher Education
Quality Initiatives, Reforms, and Innovations
Legal/Administrative Grievance Redressal System
Conclusion
References
Section V: Political Economy of Education
40 Political Economy of Education in South Asia
Introduction
The Context: Educational Challenges in South Asia
Conceptual Discussion: Political Economy of Education in South Asia
Emerging Insights
Challenge of Finance and Weakening of the State
Failure of Governance and Lack of State Accountability
Inadequate Regulations and the Challenges of Implementing Them
Growing Role of Private Money and Networks of Non-state Actors
Importance of Teachers for Successful Education Reforms
Democratic Deepening and Greater Civil Society Engagement
Concluding Thoughts
Cross-References
References
41 New Education Finance
Introduction
Low Public Expenditure, New Private Investment?
Impact Investment in South Asia
NSOs, Networks, and Impact Investment
Active NSOs in Education Impact Investment in South Asia
NSOs Creating Market Opportunities for Education Impact Investment: The Cases of AVPN and Dasra
AVPN
Dasra
Market-Making for Education Impact Investment in South Asia: Preliminary Conceptual Applications and Conclusions
References
42 Regional Imbalances in Provisioning and Participation in Education in India and Pakistan
Introduction
Regional Inequalities in Educational Access and Outcomes
Public Financing and Provision of Education
Governance and Provision of Public Goods: a Framework of Analysis
Systems of Education in Pakistan and India
Political Economy Perspectives on Unequal Provision
Politics
Heterogeneity and Collective Action
Inequalities of Land Ownership and Role of the Elite
Compact and Management of Service Delivery Mechanisms
Conclusion
References
43 Political Economy of Producing Skilled College Graduates in South Asia
Brief Background on Higher Education in South Asia8
The Political Economy of Skilling Students: An Unfair Burden on Higher Education
The Political Economy of Governance: Too Many Controls, Too Little Flexibility
The Political Economy of Privatization: Private Colleges Are Not Just Diploma Mills
Summary
Endnotes
References
44 Private Schooling and Tutoring at Scale in South Asia
Introduction
What Roles Can Private Schooling and Tutoring Play in Education Systems?
Participation Trends in Private Schooling and Tutoring
Reasons for Private Sector Growth
Lack of Adequate Public Schooling Supply and Presence of Regulations Facilitating Private Schools
Demand for Private Schooling and Tutoring
Systemic Consequences and Accountability Responses
Consequences on Performance or Equity at a System Wide Level
Accountability Mechanisms
Discussion: Unresolved Issues When Taking a Systemic Perspective
Conclusion
References
45 The Political Economy of Teachers in South Asia
Introduction
Teachers: Critical Inputs in Global Education Systems
Teachers: Largest Expenditure Item for Governments in the South Asia Region (SAR)
Teachers: Key Stakeholders and Political Players in Education Systems in the South Asia Region
Teachers: Key Stakeholders and Critical Political Players
The Extent of Teacher Politicization in the SAR: Examples from Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Engaging Teachers Is Critical for the Success of Education Reforms
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
46 Implications of Globalization and Economic Reforms for Education Systems in South Asia
Introduction
The Meaning and Characteristics of Globalization
Globalization: Old and New
Globalization´s Many Faces
Critiques of Globalization
Manifestations of Globalization Affecting Human Resource Development
Globalization and Inequality
Migrant Workers and Remittances
Regional Integration in South Asia
Dealing with It: Promising Initiatives
Harnessing Technologies
SDG 2030: The Global Agenda
SDG 4: The Education Goal
A Response Framework for South Asia
Civil Society Activism
Conclusion
References
Section VI: Teachers and Teacher Education
47 Understanding Teachers and Teaching in South Asia
Introduction
Context of Teacher and Teacher Education in South Asia
Situating Teachers and the Teaching Profession
Approaches to Professional Learning and Development
Towards a Critical Humanist Teacher Education Agenda
References
48 Mapping the Profession of Teaching in South Asia
Introduction
Background
Nature of Employment and Remuneration
Entry to the Teaching Profession: Recruitment, Deployment, Redeployment, Transfers, and Preservice Education
Recruitment of Teachers
Deployment and Redeployment of Teachers
Preservice Education
Post-entry: Opportunities for Professional Growth, Career Progression and Performance Appraisal
Professional Development Opportunities
Career Progression and Performance Appraisal of Teachers
Teacher Absenteeism, Accountability, and Grievance Redressal
Conclusion
References
49 A Cultural View of Teachers, Pedagogy, and Teacher Education
Textbook Culture
Indigenous Pedagogical Traditions
Educability
Pedagogic Cultures in Public and Private Schools
Teachers´ Voices on Good Teaching and the Profession
Pedagogic Reform
Conclusion
References
50 Framing Teachers in National Education Policy and in the Popular Media
Introduction
Teachers and Teaching: Situating the Global and Local Discourses
Teachers Representation in Policy and Media: Unpacking Discourses of Derision and Agency
Context of Teacher Discourses in South Asia
Teachers in National Policy Discourses
Overview and Understanding of Teachers Within National Policies
Multiple and Diverse Conceptions of Education, Teachers, and their Work
Teachers as Having Deficits and as Part of the Problem
Teachers and Accountability
Teacher Quality and Education Quality
Controlling the Growth of Private Teacher Education Providers
Teachers in Public Media
Teacher Quality
National Education Policy on Teachers
Teacher Status
Conclusion
References
Policy Documents
51 Teachers as Agents and Policy Actors
Introduction
New Public Management: Teachers as Unaccountable Agents Without Professional Identities
Teacher Accountability
Supply-Focused Interventions
Demand-Focused Interventions
NPM: Imagination of Teachers as Agents and Policy Actors
Does the NPM Miss Something About Teachers´ Work?
Institutional Context of School Education
Acting ``with´´ Teachers Instead of ``on´´ Teachers
An Institutional Imagination of Teachers as Agents and Policy Actors
Conclusion
References
52 Learning to Teach
Introduction
Situating the Chapter
Overview of ITE Programs in South Asia
ITE Policy and Regulatory Environment
Who Becomes a Teacher?
Learning How to Teach
Who Teaches the Prospective Teachers?
Conclusion
Cross-References
Appendix One: Overview of Teacher Education in Countries in South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
End Notes
References
53 Continuous Professional Development of School Teachers
Introduction
Brief Overview of Three Country Contexts
CPD in the Three Countries
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Forms of CPD in the Three Countries
Cascade Model
Teacher Resource Centers/Cluster-Based Training
Supervision
Challenge of Quality, Funding, and Scale
Conclusion
References
Section VII: Learner Diversity and Educational Marginality
54 Learner Diversity and Educational Marginality in South Asia
Introduction
Marginalization in Education: A Conceptual Understanding
Challenges Involved in Access to Education
Privileged Knowledges and Educational Marginalization
Experiences of Educational Marginalization
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
55 Linguistic Diversity and Marginality in South Asia
Introduction
Instability in South Asia
Linguistic Diversity in South Asia
Fluidity in Linguistic Behavior
English in South Asia
Languages and People on the Margins
Marginalization of Tribal Languages
Peripatetic Communities
Linguistic Diversity and Education
Toward South Asia Rooted in Multilinguality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
56 Poverty and Education in South Asia
Introduction
An Overview of Education and Poverty in South Asia
Poverty and Access to Education
Explaining the Association Between Poverty and Education
The Relevance of Education to the Poor
Quality of Education, Private Schooling, and Poverty
Privatization and Educating the Poor
Quality Education in Government Schools
Schooling´s Impact on Poverty
Conclusion
Endnotes
References
57 Gender Equity in Education
Introduction
History of Women´s Education
Access and Participation of Girls in Education
Barriers and Enablers for Female Education
Sociocultural and Economic Factors
Systemic Features of Education
Education and Employment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
58 Education of Children with Disabilities in the South Asian Context
Introduction
Issues of Terminology
Focusing on Educating Children with Disabilities
Rights-Based Arguments
Inclusive Schools Are Better Schools for All
Economic Rationale
Prevalence Rates: Children with Disabilities
Educational Exclusion
Legal Frameworks Supporting the Inclusion of Children with Disabilities
The 3E Model: Educating Children with Disabilities
Entry
Engagement
Empowerment
Moving the Agenda Forward
Rights to but also Rights in Education
Resources
Teachers
Parents
Material
Financial
Research
References
59 Education in Conflict Areas of South Asia
Introduction
Conflict and Education: Understanding the Link
Schools as Zones of Contestation
Attacks on Schools
Challenges of Maintaining Neutrality
Recruitment of Children by Armed Groups
Gender Norms for Education in Conflict Situations
Effect of Conflict on Quality of Education
Quality of Learning in Conflict Zones
Curricular and Textbook Revisions
The Role of Language in Conflicts
Conclusion
References
60 Child Labor and Education in South Asia
Introduction
International Policies and Perspectives on Child Labor and Education
Ensuring Education for Working Children: The South Asian Context
National Policies and Measures
Role of Nongovernmental Organizations
Normative Childhood and South Asian Childhoods
Child Labor and Education: Critical Perspectives
Ways Forward
Cross-References
References
61 Educating South Asia´s Internally Migrating Children
Introduction
Mobility-Dependent Livelihoods in South Asia
``Migrants´´ in the Policy Gaze: Multiple Exclusions
Understanding Stocks and Flows of Internally Migrating Populations
Identifying Mobile Out of School Children
Enabling the Right to Education for All Children
Education, Human Capital Development, and Poverty Alleviation
Approaches to Education Inclusion for Internally Migrating Children
An Ontological Crisis? Modern Schooling and Its Terms of Inclusion
Leaving No-One Behind by Increasing Education System Flexibility
Networked Schooling
Residential Schools
Seasonal Hostels
Bridge Schools
Mobile Schools
Alternative Basic Education Provision
Open Learning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Section VIII: Knowledge and Curriculum
62 Knowledge and Curriculum Landscapes in South Asia
Introduction
Conceptual Engagements
The Curriculum as a Concept
The State and the Curriculum
Curricular Frameworks: Power and Contestations
Frameworks and Institutions
Power and Contestation
Curriculum as (re)productive?
Constructing Compliant Subjects: Educational Discourse and Colonial Difference
Producing Student-Citizens Post-Independence: Hegemony and Marginalization
Curriculum, Religion and Modernity
Colonial Curriculum
Curriculum Developments Post-Independence
Gender and the Curriculum
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
63 National Identity and the History Curriculum
Introduction
National Identity and History Education
Dilemmas of Nation-Building: Colonial and Postcolonial Trajectories
Education and Nation-Building
Curriculum Frameworks and Institutions
Curricular Approach to Nation-Building
Historical Revisionism and the Production of National Imaginaries
National Identity and the ``Other´´
Discussion and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
64 Civics and Citizenship Education in India and Pakistan
Introduction
Framework to Situate Civic Education
Colonial Civics: Masking the State, Sustaining the Dominance
Postcolonial Citizen: Colonial Legacies and Ruptures
Civilizing Missions in Postcolonial Nation-States
The National Ideology: Contestations Between Religious and Secular Visions
Pedagogical Approaches to Citizenship Education
Neoliberal Globalization, Identity Movements, and the Idea of Citizenship
Further Areas of Research
Concluding Remarks
Implications
References
65 Textbooks, Gender, and Conflict in South Asia
Introduction
Gender and Nation Building
The Intersection of Gender and Nation Building
Education as a Unifying Narrative/Reproducer of Violence
Portrayals of Men and Women in Textbooks
Textbooks, Gender, and Conflict in South Asia
Gender Stereotypes
Militarization and Masculinities
Representation
The Potential to Promote Violence and Conflict through Textbooks
Resistance to Change in Curriculum & Textbooks as Nationalism
Gender in Curriculum: The Cases of Pakistan and Sri Lanka
The Pakistan Case
Conflict in Pakistan
Gender Equality in Pakistan
Textbook Publication
Review of Studies on Pakistani Textbooks
Sri Lankan Case
Conflict in Sri Lanka
Gender Equality in Sri Lanka
Textbook Publication Institutions in Sri Lanka
Review of Studies on Textbooks in Sri Lanka
Conclusion
References
66 Conceptions of School Curriculum in South Asia
Introduction
National Curriculum Frameworks: Broad Contours and Debates
Perspectives on Educational Aims, School Knowledge, and Pedagogies
The Aims of Education
The Conception of School Knowledge
Pedagogic Imagination and Agency
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
67 Assessment of Student Learning in South Asia
Introduction
Country-Specific Assessment Practices and Related Concerns
India
Assessment Practices in Schools
Reforms in Assessment Policies (RtE Act, 2009)
No-Detention Provision (NDP)
School-Based Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
No Board Exams till Class VIII
Backlash Against the Proposed Amendments
Large-Scale Assessments
Pakistan
Assessment Practices in Schools
Assessment-Related Concerns
Aga Khan University Examination Board (AKU-EB): Attempts at Reform Through Independent Board
Sri Lanka
Assessment Practices in Schools
School-Based Assessment
Grade 5 Scholarship Examination
General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O Level)
General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE A level)
Year-End Assessments
Assessment-Related Concerns
Large-Scale Assessments
Bangladesh
Assessment Practices in Schools
Internal Assessment
External Assessment/Public Exams
Primary Stage
Secondary Stage
Assessment-Related Concerns
Large-Scale Assessments
Common Concerns Across Countries
Public Examinations for Schools
Confines Learning
Makes Curriculum Redundant
Influences Pedagogy
Stress and Anxiety
Impact on Teaching Profession
Guidebooks and Private Coaching
Celebrating Success, Not Learning
Tension Between Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning
Cheating and Other Malpractices
Learning Surveys
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Index
