Handbook of e-Tourism

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I Foundation of e-Tourism
1 e-Tourism: An Informatics Perspective
Contents
Introduction
Short History of e-Tourism
Remarks on e-Tourism Research
On the Nature of Informatics
Methodological Pillars
The Importance of Informatics
Informatics: Good New World?
IT and Structural Change
Future Developments in e-Tourism
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
2 Development of Information and Communication Technology: From e-Tourism to Smart Tourism
Contents
Introduction
ICT Development from the Tourism Supplier's Perspective
Digitalization of Tourism Operations
Front Office Operations
Back Office Operations
Data-Driven Management
Online Marketing
Channel Management
Service Personalization
Environmental Sustainability
Digital Ecosystems
Intelligent Environment
Autonomous Services
ICT Development from the Tourist Perspective
Technology Changes Pre-trip Behavior
ICT Co-create In-trip Experiences
ICT-Empowered Real-Time and Post-trip Sharing
ICT Catalyze IT Skills Training and E-Learning
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
3 Drivers of e-Tourism
Contents
Introduction: The Evolution of e-Tourism
Proprietary Systems and Automation Era (1960 to 1995)
Internet and Web 1.0 Era (1995–2010)
WEB 2.0 and the Social Media (2005–2015)
Ambient Intelligence (AmI) Tourism (2020–Future)
Conclusions: e-Tourism Drivers
References
4 e-Tourism Research: A Review
Contents
Introduction
Data and Methods
Overview of e-Tourism Research Status
Main e-Tourism Research Topics
Discussion and Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
5 A Post-disciplinary Perspective on e-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Disciplines, Knowledge Production, and Enquiry
Post-disciplinary Enquiry and Tourism
e-Tourism as a Post-disciplinary Field of Study
Concluding Remarks: On the Future of Post-disciplinary e-Tourism
Cross-References
References
6 Consumer Behavior in e-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
State-of-the-Art Research in Consumer Behavior in the E-Tourism Era
Pre-trip Phase
On-site Tourism Experience
Post-trip Evaluation Stage
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
7 Developments in German e-Tourism: An Industry Perspective
Contents
Introduction
Historical Background
German Innovators Seek Holidays for All
Early Development Shaped by Cultural Differences
American Airlines Begins Electronic Data Processing
From Idea to System Provider in Germany
START Becomes Amadeus, a European GDS
The Situation Today
Global Distribution Systems: A Blessing and a Curse
Uniform Data Formats Are Missing
New Players on the Market: Competition Becomes Global
Packaged Tours Become Dynamic
The Future
NDC: A New Standard
Google Travel
Linked Data: Knowledge Graphs and Open Data
Tourism 4.0: Robotics, Smart Destinations, Education, and Sustainable Effects
Between Digital Detox, Slow Travel, Resonance Tourism, and VR
Conclusion and Outlook
Interview Partners
Notes
Cross-References
References
8 Digitalization and the Transformation of Tourism Economics
Contents
Introduction
Research on the Tourism Economy and Its Evolution in Face of E-Tourism
A New Tourist Demand Based on Information
Digitalization for Competitive Improvement of the Tourism Offer
Implications of the Digital Economy in the Relationship Between Tourism Supply and Demand
The Tourism Labor Market in the Face of the Challenge of Automation
Destinations and the Need for Open Data: Intelligence, Accessibility, and Sustainability
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Part II Technologies in e-Tourism
9 The Evolution of Online Booking Systems
Contents
Introduction
From Computer Reservation Systems to Global Distribution Systems
The Internet as a Global Virtual Data Network
The World Wide Web as a Distributed Internet Multimedia Information System
HTML as Description Language for the Multimedia Hypertext Documents of the WWW
Cascaded Style Sheets as Additional Rule-Based Formatting Language for HTML
JavaScript as Browser Programming Language and Browser Plug-Ins
HTML Forms, Server-Side Scripts, and Web-Enabled Applications
Internet Booking Engines as Self-Service Enablers in Tourism
Integration of Legacy Booking Systems with Web Front Ends
Touristic IBEs, Package Tour Comparison Systems, and Specialized Online Travel Agent WBEs
Evolution from Mainframe via Distributed Web Services to Cloud Computing
Synopsis: Automation, Customer-Oriented Self-service, and the Two Faces of Virtualization
Cross-References
References
10 Advanced Web Technologies and E-Tourism Web Applications
Contents
Introduction
Dynamic Packaging Engines as Enablers of Mass Customization in Tourism
Web Content Management Systems, Content Syndication, and Web 2.0
XML as a Base Technology for Standardized Data Exchange Interfaces
XML as Inter-Application Interface Technology: Web Services and Mash-Ups
AJAX as Enabler for Asynchronous Data Interchange Between Browser and Web Server
The Semantic Web for Distributed Knowledge Representation
Web Portals as User-Centered Integration of Web Applications for Hybrid Business Models
Online Booking Engines and Corporate Travel Management Systems
Web Search Engines and Travel Meta-Search Engines
Mobile Web, Apps, and Augmented Reality
From Destination Management Systems and Portals to Smart Destination Service Platforms
Further Impacts and the Future of Advanced E-Tourism Web Applications
Cross-References
References
11 Web Information Retrieval and Search
Contents
Introduction
Information Retrieval
Retrieval Models
Queries
Indexing
Retrieval Functions
Weighting of Terms
Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems
Information Retrieval in the Web
Crawling
Automated Indexing
The Relevance of Search Results
User Profiling
Metasearch
Operation of a Metasearch Engine
Search Engine Interfaces
Steps in Metasearch
Web Site Optimization
Search Engine Optimization
Search Engine Marketing
Bias in Web Search
History of Information Retrieval in Tourism
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
12 Mobile Applications for e-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Foundations of Mobile e-Tourism Applications
Historical Overview
Development of Mobile Applications
Context, Localization, and Sensors
User Modeling, Personalization, and Recommendation
Mobile User Interfaces
A Taxonomy of Mobile e-Tourism Applications
Information and Search
Booking
On-Trip Services
Sharing and Interaction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
13 Internet of Things and Ubiquitous Computing in the Tourism Domain
Contents
Introduction
From Mobile Services to IoT-Enabled Ubiquitous Computing
The Enabling Technologies
Identification
Location Detection
Action and Environment Sensing
The Design Choices
Novel Scenarios for the Tourism Domain
Information and Services Requested via Physical Actions
Beyond the Personal Screen: Adaptive Information Kiosks, Intelligent Shop Windows, and Soundscapes
Interaction with Smart Objects
Tangible Output
Exploiting IoT for Personalization
Exploiting IoT for Extended Data Analytics Capabilities
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
Notes
References
14 Augmented, Virtual, and Mixed Reality in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Augmented Reality
Technological Background
Application of AR
Pre-travel Phase
On Trip Phase
Post-travel Phase
Virtual Reality
Immersion and Presence
Technological Background
Application of VR
Pre-travel Phase
On-Trip Phase
Post-travel Phase
Mixed Reality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
15 Electronic Data Interchange and Standardization
Contents
Introduction
UN/EDIFACT
Open Travel Alliance
Message Transport
EDIFACT Messaging
OTA Messaging
Parties Involved in the Data Exchange
The Role of the Service Provider
Classic EDI and WebEDI
Classic EDI
WebEDI
A Comparison
EDI Projects
The Core Issues and Future Trends
Cross-References
References
16 Semantic Web Empowered E-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Semantic Web in a Nutshell
Semantic Web of Content
Schema Definition Languages
Resource Description Framework (RDF)
RDF-Schema
Web Ontology Language (OWL2)
Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS)
Annotation Languages
Microformats
Microdata
Resource Description Framework in Attributes (RDFa)
JavaScript Object Notation in Linked Data (JSON-LD)
Ontologies
Dublin Core
Friend of a Friend (FOAF)
GoodRelations
Schema.org
Further Types
Semantic Web of Data: Linked Open Data
Semantic Web of Services: Semantic Web Services
Heavyweight Semantic Web Services
Lightweight Semantic Web Services
Illustration: A Hotel Booking Chatbot Based on Schema.org Actions
Knowledge Graph Technology
Knowledge Creation
Knowledge Hosting
Knowledge Curation
Knowledge Assessment
Knowledge Cleaning
Knowledge Enrichment
Knowledge Deployment
Use Cases in E-Tourism
Touristic Chatbots and Intelligent Personal Assistants
Open Touristic Knowledge Graph
Conclusions
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
Notes
References
17 Big Data Technologies
Contents
Introduction
Definition of Big Data
Hadoop and MapReduce Expedite Volume
NoSQL Databases Promote Variety
Hadoop and Velocity
The Hadoop Ecosystem
Big Data Infrastructure Vendors
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
18 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Contents
Introduction
Artificial Intelligence Definitions and Characteristics
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Machine Learning Algorithms
Machine Learning Models
Machine Learning Limitations
Artificial Intelligence Tools and Applications
Artificial Intelligence in Tourism
Artificial Intelligence Adoption
Future Trends
Artificial Intelligence Risks
Cross-References
References
19 Recommender Systems in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Recommender System Components
Preference Elicitation
Scoring and Ranking Recommendations
Collaborative Filtering
Content-Based
Knowledge-Based
Community- and Trust-Based
Hybrid Recommender Systems
Ranking
Recommendation Refinement
Key Recommendation Dimensions for Tourism RSs
Context-Awareness
Recommendations for Groups
Sequential Recommendations
Open Issues and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
20 Blockchain and Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Blockchain Technology
The Impact of the Blockchain on Tourism
Previous Research
Blockchain Applications in Tourism
Inventory Management
Maintenance and Tracking
Content, Reservations, and Ticketing
Payments and Tax Compliance
Loyalty Programs and Personalized Marketing
Tokenization and Dedicated Coins
Identity, Credential Management, and Privacy
Baggage Tracking
Smart Contracts
Dapps for Smart Tourism
Disintermediation
Coordination and Coopetition
Blockchain and Tourism: An Academic Perspective
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
21 Business Intelligence in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
A Business Intelligence Architecture
Data Sources
Data Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)
Data Extraction
Data Transformation
Load
Chronology of the ETL Process
Update Strategies
ETL Tools
Data Warehousing
Traditional Data Warehouse Approaches: Normalized vs. Dimensional Modeling
Data Lakes
Data Analysis and Visualization
Reporting
OLAP
Data Mining
Structuring a Tourism MIS
Case Study: DMIS Halland
Data Sources and Extraction
Data Warehouse
Data Mining
Reporting and Dashboards
Technical Architecture
Expected Future Developments
Big Data
Operational Business Intelligence
Real-Time Business Intelligence
Cross-References
References
Part III e-Tourism Methods
22 Data Mining and Predictive Analytics for E-tourism
Contents
Introduction
Patterns, Applications, and Processes
Pattern Types
How to Choose the Technique/Tool That Best Suits the Problem Type
Class/Concept Description
Frequent Patterns, Associations, and Correlations
Predictive Analysis
Cluster Analysis
Outlier Analysis
Data Preprocessing
How to Conduct a Data Mining Project
Conclusion
Challenges and Limitations of Data Mining Projects
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
23 Content Analysis of Online Travel Reviews
Contents
Introduction
Online Travel Reviews as a Data Source for Research in Hospitality and Tourism
Destination Image Analytics Through Online Travel Reviews
Selecting Sources of Online Travel Reviews
Data Collection
Data Arrangement
Content Analysis Procedures
Unit of Analysis
Term Frequency
Categorization
Metrics
Case Study: Impacts of Serious Events on Barcelona's Destination Image During the Second Half of 2017
Data Collection and Arrangement
Measuring Destination Image Aspects
Descriptive Aspect
Appraisive Aspect
Advisory Aspect
Results and Discussion
Descriptive Aspect
Appraisive and Advisory Aspects
Discussion
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
24 Network Science and e-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Network Science Overview
Software and Tools
Network Science in e-Tourism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
25 Spatial Analytics and Data Visualization
Contents
Introduction
Exploratory Analytics
A-Spatial Exploratory Methods
Spatial Network Analysis
Spatial Clustering
Point Pattern Analysis
Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA)
Sequence Analysis
Explanatory Analytics
A-Spatial Explanatory Methods
Spatial Interaction Model
Spatial Econometrics
Geographically Weighted Regression
Geovisualization
Choropleth Maps
Proportional Symbol Maps
Density and Interpolation Maps
Flow Maps
Space-Time Maps
Challenges and Future Directions
Tourist Identification
Spatial-Temporal Analysis
Computation Burden
Web-Based GIS
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
26 The Hive Mind at Work: Crowdsourcing E-Tourism Research
Contents
Introduction
The Building Blocks of Crowdsourcing Research
A Crowd of Participants
Crowdsourcing Platforms
Research Types
Crowdsourcing Research in E-Tourism
Crowdsourcing E-Tourism Research: Guidelines
Determine Research Type(s)
Defining a Crowdsourced Population
Selecting a Crowdsourcing Platform
Recruiting Participants
Managing the Crowd
Ethical Issues
Report
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
27 Tourism Design: Articulating Design Beyond Science
Contents
Introduction
Design Science and Design Thinking
Design (Science) and the Nature of Problems
The Legacy of DS in Design Thinking and Service Design
Critiques and Responses to DS and Design Thinking
Design Is an Engagement with Unknowable Futures
Alternatives to Design Science
Implications and Conclusion
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
28 Log File Analysis
Contents
Introduction
Basic Log File Mechanism
Basic Tagging System Mechanism
A Generic Log File Analyzer
LFA Requirements and Specifications
Nonfunctional Requirements
Functional Requirements
Database Design
Input-Process-Output Outline
Types of Log File Analyzers
Standard Analyzer
Extended Log File Analyzer
Hybrid Analyzer
Hybrid Analyzer with Real-Time Extensions
NRT Analyzer with Social Media Integration
Conclusions
References
29 Eye-Tracking Technology for Measuring Banner Advertising Efficacy on E-Tourism Websites: A Methodological Proposal
Contents
Introduction: Eye-Tracking Concept and Typologies
The Eye-Tracking Technology
A Brief Historical Outline
How Eye-Tracking Methodologies Operate in the Study of Consumer Behavior
Critical Issues and Possible Applications of Eye-Tracking Technology in the Marketing Sphere
Banner Advertising on E-Tourism Websites
Theoretical Background: Determining Factors of Banner Advertising
Causes and Consequences of Banner Blindness
Determining Factors of Attention and Banner Recall
Practical Application: Research Questions, Methodology, Results, and Analysis
Research Questions
Methodology
Fieldwork and Eye-Tracking System Used
Experimental Design
Measurement Scales and Data Analyses Applied
Analysis of Results
Descriptive Analysis: Visual Attention and Banner Recall
Banner Blindness: Analysis by E-Tourism Website
Explanation of Memory Based on Visual Attention
Moderating Effect of CE and Banner Type
Final Discussion, Implications, Limitations, and Future Research
Conclusions
Implications and Recommendations
Limitations and Future Research
Appendix A: Areas of the Travel 2.0 e-Tourism Web Pages
Appendix B
Index
Cross-References
References
30 User-Centered Design
Contents
Introduction
Sociotechnology as a Principle
User-Centered Design
User-Centered Design Methods
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
31 E-Tourism Research, Cultural Understanding,and Netnography
Contents
Introduction
ABriefHistory:EvolvingDefinitionsofNetnographyforEvolvingSocialTechnologies
Understanding Netnography Today
Comparing Big Data and Netnography Approaches
E-Tourism and Netnography: a Natural Fit
Applying Netnography to E-Tourism Research
Concluding Thoughts About Netnography and E-Tourism
Cross-References
References
32 Mobile Ethnography in Tourism and Hospitality: Concept, Tools, and Applications
Contents
Introduction
Ethnography Traditions and Mobile Ethnography
Types of Mobile Ethnographic Studies
Studies Adopting Real-Time Data Collection
Historical Data Collection
Methodology Studies
Literature Reviews
Tools and Scopes
Advantages and Opportunities
Reduced Average Cost
Reduced Effort and Skills from Participants
Validity and Credibility
Augmented Effect of Multi-types of Data
More Possibilities
Concerns and Limitations
Difficulties and Bias in Data Collection
Challenges in Data Analysis
Privacy
Concluding Remarks on Mobile Ethnography and Media Convergence
Cross-References
References
33 Experimental Research in E-Tourism: A Critical Review
Contents
Introduction
Literature Review
Review Articles in the Tourism Literature
Fundamentals of Experiments
Methodology
Dimensions Included in the Review
Literature Search Criteria
Filtering Criteria
Coding Procedure
Results
Article Characteristics
Research Design
Sample Characteristics
Data Analysis
Technology-Assisted Experiment
Discussions of Findings
Article Characteristics
Research Design
Sample Characteristics
Data Analysis
Advanced Technology Used to Assist Experiments
Implications and Limitations
References
34 Website Evaluation Frameworks: A Review of the Hospitality and Tourism Field from 1996 to 2019
Contents
Introduction
Collection of Articles Related to Tourism Website Evaluation
Categories of Collected Articles
Evaluation Frameworks
Analysis of Consumer and Practitioner Views
Mathematical Evaluation Method
Software Automated Evaluation Method
Manual Computation Evaluation Method
Conclusion and Discussion
Future Developments
Cross-References
References
35 User Modelling in E-Tourism: A Human-Computer Interaction Perspective
Contents
Introduction
Why User Modelling in Tourism?
Why an HCI Perspective?
Approaches to User Modelling in E-Tourism
Teleological Considerations
Forms of Data Acquisition
Levels of Maturity
The Evolution of User Modelling
Static User Models
Stereotype-Based User Models
Dynamic User Models
Highly Adaptive User Models
Hybrid User Models
HCI-Related User Modelling
User Experience Aspects of Applications of User Modelling
Discussion
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
36 Market Segmentation for e-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Market Segmentation Analysis
Weaknesses of the Traditional Approach to Market Segmentation Analysis
Market Segmentation Analysis in e-Tourism
The Future Opportunities for Market Segmentation Analysis
Transitioning from Self-Report Data to Observational Data
Transitioning from One-Off Cross-Sectional Data Collection to Continuous Data Collection
Conclusions
References
37 Visual Methods and Visual Analysis in Tourism Research
Contents
Introduction
Methods of Visual Analysis
Visual Semiotics
Iconography, Iconology, and Image-Type Analysis
Quantitative Visual Analysis
Use of Visuals in Research Processes
Visual Elicitation
Visitor-Employed Photography
Visual-Sorting and Visual Q-Sorts
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
38 Compositional Data Analysis in E-Tourism Research
Contents
Introduction
Compositional Research Questions or Compositional Data?
Composition Definition
Fine-Tuning the Research Questions
Why Are Classical Statistical Techniques Inappropriate?
Compositional Data Analysis in Practice
Log-Ratio Transformations
Basic Statistical Concepts
Center
Association
Total Variance
Distance
Data Preprocessing
Zero Replacement
Multivariate Outlier Detection
Compositional Principal Component Analysis and the CoDa Biplot
Compositional Cluster Analysis
Limitations and Extensions
Example
Data
Results
Conclusion
Appendix: CoDaPack Menus Used for the Example
Cross-References
References
Part IV Individual & Groups
39 Travel Information Search
Contents
Introduction
Perspectives on Travel Information Search
Factors Influencing Travel Information Search
Travel Information Search on the Internet
Changing Conditions of Travel Information Search
Implications and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
40 Group Decision-Making and Designing Group Recommender Systems
Contents
Introduction
Group Decision-Making Process
Means to Identify Influence in Groups
Social Influence
Group Recommender Systems
Group Recommender Systems in Tourism
Case Studies
Case Study 1
Case Study 2
The Effect of Preferences
The Effect of Personality and Travel-Related Types
The Effect of Social Relationships
Predicting the Group Decision-Reaching Approach
Future Research Challenges
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
41 Acceptance and Adoption of eTourism Technologies
Contents
Introduction
Determinants of eTourism Technology Adoption
Theoretical Foundations of the Existing eTourism Technology Acceptance Research
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Theory of Interpersonal Behavior (TIB)
Model of Goal-Directed Behavior (MGB)
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT)
Technology Readiness Indices: TRI and TRI 2.0
Flow
Mainstream Technology Acceptance Models
TAM++ Models
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Motivation Model (MM)
Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior (DTPB)
TAM2
TAM3
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
UTAUT2
Model of PC Utilisation (MPCU)
Adaptations of SCT
Adaptations of DIT
Adaptions of TRI
Expected Future Developments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
42 Tourists and Augmented and Virtual Reality Experiences
Contents
Introduction
Definition of Terms
Acceptance of VR and AR by Tourists
Use Moments for VR and AR
VR/AR for Travelling Users
Pre-Travel Phase
During the Trip
Post-Travel Phase
VR/AR for Non-travelling Users
Gaps, Influence on the Tourism Sector, and Expected Future Developments
Gaps and Future Research
Influence of IT-Enabled Experiences on the Tourism Sector
The Future
Cross-References
References
43 User Experience and Usability: The Case of AugmentedReality
Contents
Introduction
Usability
Defining Usability
How to Assess and Evaluate the Usability
Content Quality and Inter-cultural Issues
Toward a Fruitful Interaction Between Digital Analytics and Usability
Usability and Augmented Reality in Tourism
Outlining New Usability Paradigms in AR
Extended Usability Study Grid for AR in Tourism
Best Practices in AR for Tourism
Outlook and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
44 Trust in E-Tourism: Antecedents and Consequences of Trust in Travel-Related User-Generated Content
Contents
Introduction
Trust in Tourism-Related ICT
Theories and Frameworks for Understanding Trust in Tourism-Related ICT
E-Tourism and Trust
Antecedents of Trust in Travel-Related UGC
Source Factors
Message Factors
Channel Factors
Receiver Factors
Contextual Factors
Consequences of Trust in Travel-Related UGC
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
45 Smart Tourists and Intelligent Behavior
Contents
Introduction
Intelligence
Foundation Approaches to Intelligence
Additional Perspectives
Overview
Intelligent Tourists
Learning and Intelligent Tourists
Actions to Boost Intelligent Tourist Behaviour
Legal and Economic Levers
Questioning Information Provision
Promoting Smart Use of Space
A Better Tourist Image
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
46 Interactive and Context-Aware Systems in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Interactive and Conversational Systems in Tourism
Preference and Needs Elicitation Phase
Fill-Out Forms
Conversational Approaches
Special Purpose Interfaces
Rating Interfaces
Result Presentation Phase
Result List Presentation and Visualization
Explanation
Feedback and User Control
Proactive Approaches
Context Awareness of Systems in Tourism
Background
Application Examples
Tour and Journey Planning
POI Recommendation
Next-in-Sequence Recommendation
Expected Future Developments
Increased Context Awareness Based on Various Types of Data
Alternative Forms of Preference Elicitation
Persuasive User Interfaces
Privacy and Ethical Issues
Summary
Cross-References
References
Part V Organization & Enterprise
47 Strategic Use of Information Technologies in Tourism: A Review and Critique
Contents
Introduction
Strategic Use of ICT in Tourism
Impact of ICT on Business Value and Organizational Performance
Unraveling the ICT Productivity Paradox in Tourism
Critical Discussion
Conclusion and Research Outlook
Cross-References
References
48 Management and Leadership for Digital Transformation in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Digital Transformation in Tourism and Change Management
Management and Leadership in e-Tourism
Knowledge Sharing and Management in e-Tourism
Destination Management and ICTs
Digital Leadership in the Era of Smart Tourism
Critical Reflections for Digital Transformation Research in Tourism
Research Outlook
Cross-References
References
49 E-Business Models in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Business Models and the Internet
Origins and Definitions
Typologies for E-Business Models
Development of E-Business Models in Tourism
Starting Conditions
The Dynamic Early Years 1993–2000
The Social Years 2001–2008
The Platform Years 2009–2019
Overall Development and Theoretical Issues
Expected Future Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
50 Service Management in the E-Tourism Era
Contents
Introduction
State-of-the-Art Research in Service Management in the E-Tourism Era
Customer-Provider Interaction
Tourists' Intention and Adoption of New ICT Technology
The Role of Web 2.0 in Shaping Firms-Tourists Interaction
Customer Relationship Management
The Increasing Role of ICT in CRM Strategies
The Use of Social Media for CRM Optimization: Social-CRM
Big Data as a Source for CRM Strategies
Service Recovery Process
The Critical Role of Negative EWOM for Recovery Strategies
Effective Managerial Responses: Content and Writing Styles
From Design to Innovation in E-Tourism Service Management
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
51 Destination Management Organization's Emotional Branding Communication: Challenges and Opportunitiesin Social Media
Contents
Introduction
Literature Review
Destination Branding
Destination Emotional Brand Communication
Social Media Brand Communication and Engagement
Exemplary Case Study and Comparative Analysis
Case Study: Amsterdam
Comparative Analysis
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
52 Revenue Management and E-Tourism: The Past, Present, and Future
Contents
Introduction
Concept, Strategies, and Characteristics of Revenue Management
RM Applications in Different Tourism Sectors
Current Issues and Expected Future Developments in HospitalityRevenue Management
Key Performance Indicators
Technology and Data
Organization and Human Resources
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
53 e-Supply Chain Management in Tourism Destinations
Contents
Introduction
Supply Chain Management (SCM)
Tourism Supply Chain Management (TSCM)
e-Supply Chain Management
e-Supply Chain Management in Tourism Destinations
Summary and Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
54 Digital Marketing in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Digital Marketing in Tourism: Concepts and Developments
The Corporate Website
Traffic Building
Search Engine Marketing
Display Advertising
Content Marketing
Email Marketing
Planning and Implementing Digital Marketing Campaigns
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
55 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Geospatial Functions and Major Application Areas
Proximity Analysis
Network Analysis
Overlay Analysis
Temporal Change Analysis
Statistical Analysis
Image Analysis
Three-Dimensional Visualization
GIS Application in Wildlife and Tourism Management
A GIS Application for Maasai Mara Game Reserve Ecosystem Management
Understanding the Challenge to the Mara Ecosystem and Its Tourism Impact
Wildlife Location Suitability and Tourism Pressure on the Maasai Mara Game Reserve
A GIS Application for Ecosystem Management in the Nairobi National Park
Infrastructural Development and Habitat Fragmentation
Human Settlement and Mining Activities
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
56 Social Media Approaches and Communication Strategies in Tourism
Contents
Introduction
From Information to Engagement: A Paradigm Shift in Online Communication
Online Relationship Marketing (ORM)
Customer Engagement
Travel and Tourism Companies' Social Media Approaches
Social Media Customer Care (SMCC)
Improving Travelers' Engagement Through Social Media
A Fully Integrated Approach: Social CRM
Barriers That Limit the Adoption of Social Media in Travel and Tourism Companies
Implications for Improving Social Media Marketing in Tourism
Conclusion and Future Research
Cross-References
References
57 The Voice of Major E-Tourism Players: An Expedia Group Perspective
Contents
Introduction
Overview of Expedia Group and the Online Travel Distribution Landscape
The Traveler Online Booking Journey
Business Model and OTA Value Proposition
Value Proposition for Travelers
Value Proposition for Suppliers
New Consumer Interaction Models
Voice and OTAs
Recommendation Systems for Online Travel
Performance of Real-Time OTA Recommendations
Recommendation Quality and Bots
Personalization
Embeddings
Multidimensional Considerations for Recommendations
Automated Content Management for OTAs
Text
Images
Revenue Management
Revenue Management and Forecasting
COVID-19 and Initial Responses
Conclusions and Outlook
Cross-References
References
58 Information and Communication Technology in Event Management
Contents
Introduction
Information and Communication Technologies and the Domains of Event Management
Administration Domain
Secure Mobile and RFID Ticketing
Secure Virtual Payment Methods
Blockchain
Design Domain
Festivalscape
Livestreaming
Holographic Technology
Marketing Domain
Social Media
Crowdfunding
Operations Domain
Waste Management and Sustainability
Crowd Management
Risk Domain
Drone Surveillance
RFID Tracking
ICT and the Event Attendees' Experiences
Communitas
Liminality
Sense of Place
Memorable Tourism Experiences
Co-creation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
59 Technology-Assisted Mindfulness in the Co-creation of Tourist Experiences
Contents
Introduction
The Foundations of Meditative Mindfulness
Technology-Assisted Mindfulness
Meditative Mindfulness and Digital Wellbeing: An Organizational Perspective and Responsibilities
Approaches to Embrace Technology-Assisted Mindfulness When Co-creating Tourist Experiences
The Potential Contribution of Tourism Providers to Technology-Assisted Mindful Experience Co-creation
Further Research
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
60 E-Tools for Tourism Innovation Management:A New Typology
Contents
Introduction
Conceptual Framework
Developing a Typology
Key Features in Innovation E-tools and Definitions
E-tools in a Processual Context
Discussion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Analyzed e-tools
Part VI Network & Market
61 The Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in the Tourism Sector
Contents
Introduction
Elements of Diffusion Models
The S-Shape of Diffusion Curve
Rogers Model: Normal Distribution Model
The Bass Model: Combined Effects: Innovation and Imitation
Logistic Model
Innovation Dynamics in the Tourism Sector: Adoption of Web 1.0 Property Website by the Accommodation Sector in Switzerland
Conclusion and Summary
Expected Developments
Cross-References
References
62 Sharing and Platform Economy in Tourism: An Ecosystem Review of Actors and Future Research Agenda
Contents
Introduction
Sharing Economy: Conceptualization, Features, Tourism Research, and Gaps
The Platform Side
The Demand Side: The Seekers
The Supply Side: The Providers
The Environment and Destination Side
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
63 Digital Ecosystems, Complexity, and Tourism Networks
Contents
Introduction
Complex Tourism Digital Ecosystems
Digital Ecosystems
DBE as a Complex Adaptive System
A Short Reminder on Network Analysis
Dynamic Processes
Exploring Tourism Digital Ecosystems: A Multiple Case
Concluding Remarks
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
64 Value Co-creation in Dynamic Networks and E-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Value Co-creation
Tourism System and Networks
Dynamic Networks
E-Tourism and Network Technologies
Integrative Framework
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
Part VII Policy, Regulation & Ethics
65 Data Privacy and the Travel Sector
Contents
Introduction
Background
The European Approach to Privacy Protection
General Data Protection Regulation 2016 GDPR
Data Privacy Development Outside Europe
Implication for Travel Companies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
66 Cybersecurity in Travel and Tourism: A Risk-BasedApproach
Contents
Introduction
Understanding the Cyber Risk Landscape
Threat Actors and Their Motives
State-Sponsored Actors
Activists (Hacktivists)
Organized Crime Groups and Black Hats
Inadvertent and Malicious Insiders
Types of Attack and Attack Vectors
Cognitive Hacks
Malware Attacks
POS (Endpoint) Attacks
Ransomware Attacks
Botnet/DDoS Attacks
Attacks on Third-Party Service Providers
Wi-Fi Network/Website Compromise
Building Cybersecurity Capability
Cybersecurity Governance
Setting Priorities: What Matters Most?
Cybersecurity Strategy, Mechanisms, and Controls
The Human Element
Likelihood Management
Consequence Management
Systems' Testing and Reviewing
Future Cybersecurity Developments in Travel and Tourism
Cross-References
References
67 e-Government and Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Interactions Between Government, Tourism, and ICTs
Context
Overview of Six e-Government Relationships Applied to Tourism
Government-to-Government (G2G)
Government-to-Business (G2B)
Government-to-Nonprofit Organization (G2N)
Government-to-Citizen (G2C)
Government-to-Visitor (G2V)
Government-to-Employee (G2E)
e-Government for Tourism Case Studies
Municipal Wi-Fi Networks at the Service of Tourists
``WiFi Lugano''
Data Collection and Analysis
Five Usage Profiles
Implications of a MWN for a City's Tourism Strategy
Exploration of How National Tourism Strategy Plans Address e-Tourism Aspects
Methodology
Results
Expected Future Developments
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
68 Information and Communication Technology for Sustainable Tourism Development
Contents
Introduction
ICT and Sustainable Tourism
ICT and the Sustainable Tourism Planner
ICT for the Sustainable Tourist
ICT for Sustainable Tourism in Local Communities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
69 e-Learning in Tourism Education
Contents
Introduction
Tourism and Education
Workforce Needs in Tourism and Hospitality
e-Learning Dimensions
Media and Technologies
Space and Time
Delivery Scenarios and Trends
e-Learning Applications in the Tourism Domain
Academic Institutions
Industry at Large
Tourism and Hospitality Companies
Public Agencies
Independent Providers
Open Challenges and Future Development
Cross-References
References
70 Technology-Enabled Learning
Contents
Introduction
Technology and the Tourism Curriculum
Technology and Tourism Pedagogy
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
Simulations
Mobile Learning
Technology and Assessment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
71 IT and Well-Being in Travel and Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Defining Well-Being
Technology and Well-Being
Digital Detox
Technology Trends Enhancing Well-Being in Travel and Tourism
Virtual Reality (VR)
Augmented Reality (AR)
Internet of Things (IoT)
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Facial Recognition Technology
Conclusion and Future Directions
Cross References
References
72 E-Tourism Curriculum
Contents
Introduction
The Tourism Curriculum Framework
State-of-the-Art: Research on e-Tourism Curriculum Design
IFITT e-Tourism Curriculum Initiatives
IFITT e-Tourism Knowledge Map
IFITT e-Tourism Curriculum
ICT and Tourism: Theoretical Foundations
ICT Usage in Tourism: Overview & Case Studies
Recent ICT Trends and Application Areas in Tourism
Summary and Conclusions
Exepected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
73 E-Tourism as a Tool for Socio-economic Development
Contents
Introduction
Tourism and Developing Countries
Community-Based Tourism: The Context of Action
E-Tourism for Development
The Main Components of e-Tourism for Development
Intersection of These Three Domains
Development Measurement Frameworks in Tourism
Rethinking the Role and Impact of ICTs in Tourism for Development
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
74 Digital Divide in E-Tourism
Contents
Introduction
Digital Divide
Digital Divide in Tourism
Current State of Digital Divide in Tourism
Models of Digital Divide in Tourism
Strategies to Mitigate the Digital Divide
Research Topics on Digital Divide in Tourism
Future Trends in Digital Divide
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
75 Social Media and Crisis Communication in Tourism and Hospitality
Contents
Introduction
Crisis Defined
Crisis Communication
Crisis Communication Origins and History
Social Media in Crisis Communication
Crisis Communication in Hospitality and Tourism
Crisis Communication Throughout Crisis Phases
Internal and External Crisis Communication
Social Media and Crisis Communication in Hospitality and Tourism
Social Media Pre-Crisis
Adoption of Social Media for Crisis Communication
Management of Social Media for Crisis Monitoring and Mitigation
Tourists Use of Social Media Pre-Crisis
Social Media During Crisis
Industry's Use of Social Media During a Crisis
Peer-to-Peer Communication and Community Resilience
Crowdsourcing and Citizen Journalism
Misinformation, Trust, and Rumor Reduction
Use and Behaviors of Social Media During a Crisis
Social Media Post-Crisis
Industry's Use of Social Media Post-Crisis
Managing Risk Perceptions Post-Crisis
The Future of Social Media Crisis Communication in Tourism
References
76 Biometrics in Tourism: Issues and Challenges
Contents
Introduction
Biometrics
Types of Biometrics Technology
Iris
Face
Fingerprint
Issues and Challenges of Biometrics Technology
Physical Privacy
Information Privacy
Contamination Fears
Conclusion
References
77 Simulations in e-Tourism Learning and Management
Contents
Introduction: Simulations in Tourism and Hospitality
Background
Case Study: Destination Administration and Planning System (DAPS) Simulation Game
Version 1
Power, Influence, and ``Flocking'' Behavior
Version 2
The Game Destination
Architecture and Processing
The Community and Its Social Network
Validation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part VIII e-Tourism Future
78 Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
Contents
Introduction
Research on Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
Technical Foundations of Robotics
Current Application of Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
Robots in Hotels
Robots in Restaurants
Robots in Events
Robots in Attractions
Robots in Travel
Supply-Side Perspective of Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
The Economics of Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
Cost-Benefit Analysis of Adoption of Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
Managing Tourism/Hospitality Employees' Resistance to Service Robots
Design of Robot-Friendly Facilities
Demand-Side Perspective of Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
Attitudes Towards Robots
Human-Robot Interaction
Willingness to Pay for Robot-Delivered Services
The Future of Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
Future Opportunities for Robotization of Tourism and Hospitality Services
Future Research Opportunities on Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
79 Virtual Reality and the End of Tourism? A Substitution Acceptance Model
Contents
Introduction
Present and Future VR Technology
VR Tourism: Why and Why Not
VR as a Tourism Substitute?
A Substitution Acceptance Model of VR Tourism
Characteristics of the User
Characteristics of the VR Experience
Quality of the VR Experience
Implications of VR Tourism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
80 A Futuristic Look at Tourism in the Era of the InternetEcosystem
Contents
Introduction
Era of the Internet Ecosystem
Drivers of Change for Tourism
Tourism and Socioeconomic Dynamics
Tourism and Climate Change
Tourism and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions
Tourism and Climate Change Refugees
Built Attractions and IT
IT and the Destination Experience
Climate Change, Tourism, and the Internet Ecosystem
Tourism and Demographic Dynamics
ITT2.0: The Growth of Virtual Reality Tourism
Robot Doll Tourism
Closing Remarks
Cross-References
Notes
References
81 Impact of Artificial Intelligence in Travel, Tourismand Hospitality
Contents
Introduction
Defining Artificial Intelligence
IT Foundations for AI
Big Data
AI Fields of Interest for Travel and Tourism
Ambient Intelligence
Natural Language Processing and Facial Recognition
Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and Neural Networks
AI Systems and Their Use in Travel and Tourism
AI Systems
Personalization and Recommender Systems
Conversational Systems: Chatbots and Voice Assistants
Forecasting
Language Translation Applications
Devices and Integrated Systems
Robots
Smart Travel Assistants
Smart Tourism and Smart Destinations
Impacts of AI on Hospitality
AI-Related Challenges in Travel and Tourism
Issues Related to Tourists' Adoption and Use of AI
The Substitution of Humans
Ethics and Biases in AI
Future Research
Expected Future Developments
Cross-References
References
Index