Handbook of Computer Vision and Applications, V1

Components of a vision system......Page 26
Imaging systems......Page 27
Illumination and Image Formation......Page 30
Radiation......Page 32
Introduction......Page 33
Electromagnetic waves......Page 34
Polarization of radiation......Page 36
Coherence of radiation......Page 37
Solid angle......Page 38
Conventions and overview......Page 39
Definition of radiometric quantities......Page 41
Relationship of radiometric quantities......Page 44
Spectral distribution of radiation......Page 48
Spectral response of the human eye......Page 49
Definition of photometric quantities......Page 50
Luminous efficacy......Page 52
Blackbody radiation......Page 53
Properties of Planck's distribution......Page 55
Approximations of Planck's distribution......Page 57
Luminous efficacy of blackbody radiation......Page 58
Acoustic waves......Page 59
References......Page 60
Introduction......Page 62
Basic definitions and terminology......Page 63
Definition of optical properties......Page 64
Terminology conventions......Page 65
Kirchhoff's law......Page 66
Surface emission......Page 68
Specular reflection......Page 71
Diffuse reflection......Page 73
Reflection models in computer graphics......Page 75
Attenuation of radiation......Page 77
Volume emission......Page 83
Luminescence......Page 84
References......Page 86
Imaging Optics......Page 88
Reflection and refraction......Page 89
Paraxial optics......Page 91
Definitions......Page 92
Spherical lenses......Page 94
Aspherical lenses......Page 96
Paraxial lenses......Page 97
Thick lenses......Page 98
Systems of lenses......Page 99
Matrix optics......Page 100
Dispersion......Page 103
Glasses and plastics......Page 104
Aberrations......Page 106
Spherical aberrations......Page 107
Coma......Page 109
Astigmatism......Page 110
Field curvature......Page 111
Distortions......Page 113
Chromatic aberrations......Page 114
Geometry of image formation......Page 115
Depth-of-field and focus......Page 118
Telecentric optics......Page 120
Wave and Fourier optics......Page 121
Linear optical systems......Page 122
Optical Fourier transform......Page 124
References......Page 125
Radiometry of Imaging......Page 128
Source-detector flux calculations......Page 129
Radiance meter......Page 132
Revisiting Lambert: case studies......Page 134
Propagating radiance......Page 137
Radiance invariance......Page 138
Radiance invariance at interfaces......Page 139
Radiance of imaging......Page 140
Radiance and irradiance of images......Page 141
Field darkening......Page 142
Detector performance: figures of merit......Page 143
Classification of optical detectors......Page 146
Photon detectors......Page 147
Thermal detectors......Page 155
Characteristics of detector arrays......Page 157
Concluding summary......Page 158
References......Page 160
Introduction......Page 162
Solar radiation......Page 163
Diffuse sky irradiation......Page 165
Artificial illumination sources......Page 166
Incandescent lamps......Page 167
Discharge lamps......Page 169
Arc lamps......Page 171
Infrared emitters......Page 173
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)......Page 174
Laser......Page 181
Directional illumination......Page 182
Diffuse illumination......Page 183
Rear illumination......Page 184
Telecentric illumination......Page 185
Pulsed and modulated illumination......Page 186
References......Page 187
Imaging Sensors......Page 188
Solid-State Image Sensing......Page 190
Introduction......Page 191
Fundamentals of solid-state photosensing......Page 193
Propagation of photons in the image sensor......Page 194
Generation of photocharge pairs......Page 197
Separation of charge pairs......Page 198
Photocharge integration in photodiodes and charge-coupled devices......Page 200
Programmable offset subtraction......Page 201
Programmable gain pixels......Page 203
Nonlinear photocurrent to signal voltage conversion......Page 204
Charge-coupled device photocharge transportation......Page 207
Photodiode photocharge signal transmission......Page 208
Voltage signal transmission......Page 209
Signal-to-noise and dynamic range......Page 210
The basic MOSFET source follower......Page 211
Noise sources in MOSFETs......Page 212
Frame-transfer charge-coupled devices......Page 214
Interline-transfer charge-coupled devices......Page 215
Field-interline-transfer charge-coupled devices......Page 216
Active pixel sensor technology......Page 217
RS-170, CCIR, NTSC and PAL......Page 219
High-definition television......Page 221
Random pixel access and format......Page 222
Analog signal transmission of video information......Page 223
Color chips and color cameras......Page 225
Digital camera technology......Page 228
Shrinking design rules for more and smaller pixels......Page 229
Low-cost prototyping......Page 231
Pixel nonuniformity and dead pixels......Page 232
Sensor nonlinearity......Page 233
Custom functionality with the photosensor toolbox......Page 234
Smart image sensors......Page 240
On the way to seeing chips?......Page 241
Conclusions......Page 243
References......Page 244
Introduction......Page 248
Log compression at the pixel site......Page 249
Optimized SNR by bandwidth control per pixel......Page 253
Color constancy in the log space......Page 255
Development of functionality and spatial resolution......Page 256
References......Page 260
Image Sensors in TFA (Thin Film on ASIC) Technology......Page 262
Introduction......Page 263
Thin-film detector structures for b/w recognition......Page 264
Thin-film detector structures for color recognition......Page 267
Noise in TFA sensors......Page 274
TFA design for high local contrast......Page 276
TFA design for high dynamic range......Page 277
Effects of CMOS device downscaling......Page 279
TFA sensor with one-transistor pixel......Page 281
TFA sensor with constant voltage circuit......Page 282
Locally adaptive TFA sensor......Page 283
Locally autoadaptive TFA sensor......Page 284
TFA color sensor for single flash illumination......Page 287
TFA star tracker......Page 289
Hybrid a-Si:H/x-Si detector......Page 290
UV detector......Page 291
Conclusions......Page 292
References......Page 293
Poly SiGe Bolometers......Page 296
Overview......Page 297
Principle of operation of bolometers......Page 299
Thermal behavior......Page 300
Responsivity......Page 303
Sources of noise......Page 304
Microbolometer focal plane arrays......Page 305
Model describing the performance of FPA......Page 306
Bolometer materials......Page 309
Materials used for bolometers......Page 310
Poly SiGe as a bolometer material......Page 311
Process for fabrication of poly SiGe bolometers......Page 313
Quarter-wavelength absorber......Page 315
TCR of poly SiGe......Page 317
Thermal conductivity of poly SiGe......Page 319
Mechanical properties of poly SiGe......Page 320
Responsivity of poly SiGe bolometers......Page 321
Noise in poly SiGe bolometers......Page 324
Noise in poly SiGe FPA......Page 325
Conclusions......Page 326
References......Page 327
Spectral signatures......Page 334
Line sampling......Page 335
Parameter-based spectral sampling......Page 336
Three-dimensional color space......Page 340
Primary colors......Page 341
Chromaticity......Page 342
Hue and saturation......Page 343
References......Page 345
Two-Dimensional Imaging......Page 346
Introduction......Page 348
Physical properties of fluorescence......Page 349
The oxygen quenching method......Page 352
Calcium indicators......Page 353
Other ions and membrane potential......Page 355
Photobleaching and photodamage......Page 356
Conventional fluorescence microscopy......Page 357
Image deconvolution......Page 358
Confocal microscopy......Page 361
Two-photon microscopy......Page 362
Miscellaneous techniques......Page 364
Analysis of fluorescence images......Page 366
Summary......Page 368
References......Page 369
Electron Microscopic Image Acquisition......Page 372
Introduction......Page 373
Electron-specimen interactions......Page 374
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)......Page 375
Ideal TEM......Page 376
Real TEM......Page 378
Imaging modes in the TEM......Page 381
TEM image detectors......Page 382
Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM)......Page 384
Electron probe x-ray microanalysis......Page 386
Energy-filtering electron microscopy......Page 387
Signal generation......Page 389
Contrast mechanisms......Page 392
Preparation techniques......Page 393
Digital image processing of electron micrographs......Page 394
Imaging examples......Page 395
Imaging of biological samples......Page 396
Element mapping in biology and material science......Page 400
SEM image examples......Page 404
References......Page 408
Introduction......Page 412
Ultrasound imaging systems......Page 415
Mechanisms of ultrasound wave propagation......Page 416
Implementation aspects......Page 419
Ultrasound Doppler imaging......Page 422
Processing the B-mode image......Page 423
Speckles and artifacts in B-mode image......Page 424
Ultrasonic tissue characterization......Page 426
Examples of image processing of B-mode images......Page 428
Detection of immune reactions in renal transplants......Page 429
Determination of composition of gall bladder stones......Page 433
Conclusions and perspectives......Page 436
References......Page 437
Introduction......Page 440
The pilot experiment......Page 441
ADONIS......Page 443
Acoustic daylight images......Page 445
Concluding remarks......Page 447
References......Page 448
Image segmentation with little robustness......Page 450
Sensor fusion and multisensorial camera......Page 451
A feature vector with every pixel......Page 453
A real-time three-dimensional linescan camera......Page 454
A real-time linescan scatter camera......Page 455
The multisensorial color-height-scatter camera......Page 457
Compressing the multisensorial camera signals......Page 459
Conclusion......Page 460
References......Page 461
Three-Dimensional Imaging......Page 464
Geometric Calibration of Digital Imaging Systems......Page 466
Interior effects......Page 467
Model of image formation with the aid of optical systems......Page 469
Camera models......Page 470
Calibrated focal length and principal-point location......Page 471
Distortion and affinity......Page 472
Bundle adjustment......Page 475
Other techniques......Page 480
Applications with simultaneous calibration......Page 482
Applications with precalibrated camera......Page 483
References......Page 485
Principles of Three-Dimensional Imaging Techniques......Page 488
Introduction......Page 489
Basic principles......Page 490
Some criteria and specifications......Page 492
Triangulation......Page 494
Active triangulation......Page 496
Passive triangulation......Page 498
Time-of-flight (TOF) of modulated light......Page 499
Continuous wave (CW) modulation......Page 500
Pseudo-noise modulation......Page 501
Comparison with interferometry......Page 502
Multiwavelength interferometry......Page 504
White-light interferometry......Page 505
Outlook......Page 506
References......Page 507
Introduction......Page 510
Why three-dimensional sensors?......Page 511
Some important questions about three-dimensional sensing......Page 513
Triangulation on optically rough surfaces......Page 514
Physical limit for triangulation at rough surfaces......Page 515
Triangulation beyond the coherent limit......Page 517
More triangulation drawbacks......Page 518
A ``real-time'' phase measuring three-dimensional camera......Page 519
White-light interferometry on rough surfaces......Page 520
Summary......Page 527
Conclusion......Page 529
References......Page 530
High-Performance Surface Measurement......Page 532
Requirements for reverse engineering sensors......Page 533
Optical sensor principles......Page 534
Target-based measurement......Page 536
Surface reconstruction with photogrammetry......Page 540
Calibrated light projection......Page 542
Information theory......Page 544
Signal limitations and basic errors......Page 546
Surface measurement based on sequential light......Page 547
Hybrid codes......Page 549
Light stripe projectors......Page 550
Projector calibration......Page 551
Hybrid navigation of three-dimensional sensors......Page 554
Mobile measuring system ``Ganymed''......Page 557
Virtual target concept......Page 558
Conclusions......Page 561
References......Page 562
Three-Dimensional Light Microscopy......Page 566
Three-dimensional microscopy......Page 567
Two lenses......Page 568
Position of scanning system......Page 571
Theory of three-dimensional imaging......Page 572
Confocal fluorescence microscopy......Page 573
Resolution......Page 576
Three-dimensional reconstruction......Page 577
Confocal transmission microscopy......Page 578
Deconvolution of conventional recording......Page 579
Developments in confocal microscopy......Page 580
Multiphoton illumination......Page 581
Resolution versus distance......Page 582
Perspectives of three-dimensional light microscope......Page 583
References......Page 584
Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Medicine......Page 588
Particle with spin......Page 589
Bloch equations......Page 592
Excitation by radio frequency pulses......Page 594
$T1$- and $T2$-relaxation......Page 595
Signal detection......Page 597
Spin echo......Page 598
Strategies for spatial encoding......Page 599
Two-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging......Page 606
Three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging......Page 609
Spin-echo sequence......Page 610
Image contrast......Page 612
$T2$-, $T2^{ast }$- and spin-density contrast......Page 613
$T1$-contrast......Page 614
Fast imaging methods......Page 615
FLASH imaging......Page 616
Sequences with advanced $k$-space trajectories......Page 618
Overview of quantitative applications......Page 620
References......Page 623
Introduction......Page 626
NMR microscopy......Page 628
NMR flow measurements......Page 629
Materials and methods......Page 630
Results......Page 632
Results......Page 634
Discussion......Page 636
References......Page 637
Index......Page 638