Handbook of Bioplastics and Biocomposites Engineering Applications

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Part I: Bioplastics, Synthesis and Process Technology
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Engineering Applications of Bioplastics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Bioplastics
1.3 Physical Properties
1.3.1 Rheological Properties
1.3.2 Optical Properties
1.3.3 Mechanical and Thermal Properties
1.3.4 Electrical Properties
1.4 Applications of Bioplastics in Engineering
1.4.1 Bioplastics Applications in Sensors
1.4.2 Bioplastics Applications in Energy Sector
1.4.3 Bioplastics Applications in Bioengineering
1.4.4 Bioplastics Applications in “Green” Electronics
1.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
Dedication
References
Chapter 2 Biobased Materials: Types and Sources
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biodegradable Biobased Material
2.2.1 Polysaccharides
2.2.2 Starch
2.2.3 Polylactic Acid
2.2.4 Cellulose
2.2.5 Esters
2.2.6 Ether
2.2.7 Chitosan
2.2.8 Alginate
2.2.9 Proteins
2.2.10 Gluten
2.2.11 Gelatine
2.2.12 Casein
2.2.13 Lipid
2.2.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
2.3 Nonbiodegradable Biobased Material
2.3.1 Polyethylene (PE)
2.3.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
2.3.3 Polyamide (PA)
2.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 3 Bioplastic From Renewable Biomass
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Plastics and Bioplastics
3.2.1 Plastics
3.2.2 Bioplastics
3.3 Classification of Bioplastics
3.4 Bioplastic Production
3.4.1 Biowaste to Bioplastic
3.4.1.1 Lipid Rich Waste
3.4.2 Milk Industry Waste
3.4.3 Sugar Industry Waste
3.4.4 Spent Coffee Beans Waste
3.4.5 Bioplastic Agro-Forestry Residue
3.4.6 Bioplastic from Microorganism
3.4.7 Biomass-Based Polymers
3.4.7.1 Biomass-Based Monomers for Polymerization Process
3.5 Characterization of Bioplastics
3.6 Applications of Bioplastics
3.6.1 Food Packaging
3.6.2 Agricultural Applications
3.6.3 Biomedical Applications
3.7 Bioplastic Waste Management Strategies
3.7.1 Recycling of Poly(Lactic Acid ) (PLA)
3.7.1.1 Mechanical Recycling of PLA
3.7.1.2 Chemical Recycling of PLA
3.7.2 Recycling of Poly Hydroxy Alkanoates (PHAs)
3.7.3 Landfill
3.7.4 Incineration
3.7.5 Composting
3.7.6 Anaerobic Digestion
3.7.6.1 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates)
3.7.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Lactic Acid)
3.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 4 Modeling of Natural Fiber-Based Biocomposites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Generality of Biocomposites
4.2.1 Natural Matrix
4.2.2 Natural Reinforcement
4.2.3 Natural Fiber Classification
4.2.4 Biocomposites Processing
4.2.4.1 Extrusion and Injection
4.2.4.2 Compression Molding
4.2.5 RTM-Resin Transfer Molding
4.2.6 Hand Lay-Up Technique
4.3 Parameters Affecting the Biocomposites Properties
4.3.1 Fiber’s Aspect Ratio
4.3.2 Fiber/Matrix Interfacial Adhesion
4.3.3 Fibers Orientation and Dispersion
4.3.3.1 Short Fibers Orientation
4.3.3.2 Fiber’s Orientation in Simple Shear Flow
4.3.3.3 Fiber’s Orientation in Elongational Flow
4.4 Process Molding of Biocomposites
4.4.1 Unidirectional Fibers
4.4.1.1 Classical Laminate Theory
4.4.1.2 Rule of Mixture
4.4.1.3 Halpin-Tsai Model
4.4.1.4 Hui-Shia Model
4.4.2 Random Fibers
4.4.2.1 Hirsch Model
4.4.2.2 Self-Consistent Approach (Modified Hirsch Model)
4.4.2.3 Tsai-Pagano Model
4.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Process Modeling in Biocomposites
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biopolymer Composites
5.2.1 Natural Fiber-Based Biopolymer Composites
5.2.2 Applications of Biopolymer Composites
5.2.3 Properties of Biopolymer Composites
5.3 Classification of Biocomposites
5.3.1 PLA Biocomposites
5.3.2 Nanobiocomposites
5.3.3 Hybrid Biocomposites
5.3.4 Natural Fiber-Based Composites
5.4 Process Modeling of Biocomposite Models
5.4.1 Compression Moulding
5.4.2 Injection Moulding
5.4.3 Extrusion Method
5.5 Formulation of Models
5.5.1 Types of Model
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Microbial Technology in Bioplastic Production and Engineering
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fundamental Principles of Microbial Bioplastic Production
6.3 Bioplastics Obtained Directly from Microorganisms
6.3.1 PHA
6.3.2 Poly (ƒÁ-Glutamic Acid) (PGA)
6.4 Bioplastics from Microbial Monomers
6.4.1 Bioplastics from Aliphatic Monomers
6.4.1.1 PLA
6.4.1.2 Poly (Butylene Succinate)
6.4.1.3 Biopolyamides (Nylons)
6.4.1.4 1, 3-Propanediol (PDO)
6.4.2 Bioplastics from Aromatic Monomers
6.5 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioplastic Production
6.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Synthesis of Green Bioplastics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Bioplastic
7.2.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
7.2.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
7.2.3 Cellulose
7.2.4 Starch
7.3 Renewable Raw Material to Produce Bioplastic
7.3.1 Raw Material from Agriculture
7.3.2 Organic Waste as Resources for Bioplastic Production
7.3.3 Algae as Resources for Bioplastic Production
7.3.4 Wastewater as Resources for Bioplastic Production
7.4 Bioplastics Applications
7.4.1 Food Industry
7.4.2 Agricultural Applications
7.4.3 Medical Applications
7.4.4 Other Applications
7.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8 Natural Oil-Based Sustainable Materials for a Green Strategy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Methodology
8.2.1 Entropy Methodology
8.2.2 Copras Methodology
8.3 Conclusions
References
Part II: Applications of Bioplastics in Health and Hygiene
Chapter 9 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Synthesis of Bioplastics
9.2.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics
9.2.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastics
9.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan
9.2.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
9.2.5 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
9.2.6 Bioplastics from Microalgae
9.3 Properties of Bioplastics
9.3.1 Material Strength
9.3.2 Electrical, Mechanical, and Optical Behavior of Bioplastic
9.4 Biological Properties of Bioplastics
9.5 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics
9.5.1 Antimicrobial Property
9.5.2 Biocontrol Agents
9.5.3 Pharmaceutical Applications of Bioplastics
9.5.4 Implantation
9.5.5 Tissue Engineering Applications
9.5.6 Memory Enhancer
9.6 Limitations
9.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Applications of Bioplastics in Hygiene Cosmetic
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Need to Find an Alternative to Plastic
10.3 Bioplastics
10.3.1 Characteristic of Bioplastics
10.3.2 Types (Classification)
10.3.3 Uses of Bioplastics
10.4 Resources of Bioplastic
10.4.1 Polysaccharides
10.4.2 Starch or Amylum
10.4.3 Cellulose
10.4.3.1 Source of Cellulose
10.5 Use of Biodegradable Materials in Packaging
10.6 Bionanocomposite
10.7 Hygiene Cosmetic Packaging
10.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Biodegradable Polymers in Drug Delivery
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biodegradable Polymer (BP)
11.2.1 Natural
11.2.1.1 Polysaccharides
11.2.1.2 Proteins
11.2.2 Synthetic
11.2.2.1 Polyesters
11.2.2.2 Polyanhydrides
11.2.2.3 Polycarbonates
11.2.2.4 Polyphosphazenes
11.2.2.5 Polyurethanes
11.3 Device Types
11.3.1 Three-Dimensional Printing Devices
11.3.1.1 Implants
11.3.1.2 Tablets
11.3.1.3 Microneedles
11.3.1.4 Nanofibers
11.3.2 Nanocarriers
11.3.2.1 Nanoparticles
11.3.2.2 Dendrimers
11.3.2.3 Hydrogels
11.4 Applications
11.4.1 Intravenous
11.4.2 Transdermal
11.4.3 Oral
11.4.4 Ocular
11.5 Existing Materials in the Market
11.6 Conclusions and Future Projections
References
Chapter 12 Microorganism-Derived Bioplastics for Clinical Applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Bioplastics
12.2.1 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)
12.2.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoate
12.2.3 Poly-Lactic Acid
12.2.4 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA)
12.2.5 Poly (.-caprolactone) (PCL)
12.3 Properties of Bioplastics
12.3.1 Physiochemical, Mechanical, and Biological Properties of Bioplastics
12.3.1.1 Polylactic Acid
12.3.1.2 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid
12.3.1.3 Polycaprolactone
12.3.1.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
12.3.1.5 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
12.4 Applications
12.4.1 Tissue Engineering
12.4.2 Drug Delivery System
12.4.3 Implants and Prostheses
12.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13 Biomedical Applications of Biocomposites Derived From Cellulose
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Importance of Cellulose in the Field of Biocomposite
13.3 Classification of Cellulose
13.4 Synthesis of Cellulose in Different Form
13.4.1 Mechanical Extraction
13.4.2 Electrochemical Method
13.4.3 Chemical Extraction
13.4.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
13.4.5 Bacterial Production of Cellulose
13.5 Formation of Biocomposite Using Different Form of Cellulose
13.6 Biocomposites Derived from Cellulose and Their Application
13.6.1 Tissue Engineering
13.6.2 Wound Dressing
13.6.3 Drug Delivery
13.6.4 Dental Applications
13.6.5 Other Applications
13.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 Biobased Materials for Biomedical Engineering
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Biomaterials
14.3 Biobased Materials for Implants and Tissue Engineering
14.3.1 Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Dressings
14.3.2 Bone Tissue Engineering
14.3.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
14.3.4 Ligament and Tendon Implants and Tissue Engineering
14.3.5 Cardiovascular Implants and Tissue Engineering
14.3.5.1 Valve Implants
14.3.5.2 Artificial Heart/Cardiac Patches
14.3.5.3 Vascular Grafts and TE
14.3.6 Liver Tissue Engineering and Bioreactors
14.3.7 Kidney Tissue Engineering and Dialysis Devices
14.3.8 Nervous Tissue Engineering and Implants
14.4 Auxiliary Materials
14.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
Chapter 15 Applications of Bioplastics in Sports and Leisure
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Plastic Pollution Due to Leisure and Sports Industries
15.1.2 Bioplastics: Overview and Classification
15.1.2.1 Biobased Nonbiodegradable
15.1.2.2 Biobased, Biodegradable
15.1.2.3 Fossil-Based, Biodegradable
15.2 Bioplastic in Leisure
15.2.1 Camping
15.2.2 Eyewear
15.2.3 Toys
15.2.4 Electronic Equipment and Other
15.3 Bioplastic in Sports
15.3.1 Shoes and Sneakers
15.3.2 Ski Boots
15.3.3 Snow Goggles
15.3.4 Surfboards and Surfskates
15.3.5 Sportscar
15.3.6 Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer Ball, and Volleyball
15.3.7 Hockey
15.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 Biocomposites in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Advances in Biocomposite Application in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging
16.2.1 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties in Active Food Packaging
16.2.2 Gaseous Scavenging Activity in Active Food Packaging
16.2.3 Freshness and Food Quality Detection in Intelligent Food Packaging
16.3 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Compounds
16.3.1 Plant Extracts
16.3.2 Essential Oils
16.3.3 Enzymes and Bacteriocins
16.3.4 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated With Natural Compounds
16.4 Biocomposites Incorporated with Inorganic Materials
16.4.1 Metal Compounds
16.4.2 Clay and Silicate-Based Mineral Compounds
16.4.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Inorganic Materials
16.5 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments
16.5.1 Intelligent Food Packaging with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments
16.5.2 Potential of Natural Food Colorants and Pigments as Active and Intelligent Food Packaging
16.5.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments
16.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17 Biofoams for Packaging Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biofoams from Botanical and Plant Sources
17.3 Starch and Their Blends
17.4 Cellulose-Based Biofoams for Packaging Application
17.5 Packaging Foams from Animal-Based Polysaccharides
17.6 Seaweed-Based Biofoams
17.7 Polylactic Acid
17.8 Tree Gum-Based Foams
17.9 Karaya Gum-Based Foams
17.10 Kondagogu Gum-Based Foams
17.11 Microbial Gum-Based Packaging Foams
17.12 Conclusion and Outlooks
References
Chapter 18 Biobased and Biodegradable Packaging Plastics for Food Preservation
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Sources for Obtaining Polymers
18.2.1 Polymers Extracted from Natural Sources
18.2.2 Biopolymers Synthesized by Microorganisms
18.2.3 Biopolymers Obtained by Chemical Synthesis
18.3 Additives in Packaging Materials
18.3.1 Natural Origin
18.3.2 Synthetic Origin
18.4 Active Packaging
18.4.1 Antioxidants in Biobased Active Packaging
18.4.2 Active Packaging Biobased with Antimicrobial Agents
18.5 Smart Packaging
18.5.1 Indicators
18.5.2 Biosensors
18.6 Functional Properties of Biobased Packaging and Their Effect on Food Preservation
18.6.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
18.6.2 Susceptibility to Moisture
18.6.3 Gas Barrier
18.7 Current State of the Biobased Packaging Market
18.8 Prospects for Food Packaging and the Use of Biobased Materials
References
Chapter 19 Bioplastics-Based Nanocomposites for Packaging Applications
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Bioplastic-Based Nanocomposites
19.2.1 PLA Bionanocomposites
19.2.2 PHA Bionanocomposites
19.2.3 Starch Bionanocomposites
19.2.4 PBS Bionanocomposites
19.3 Packaging Applications
19.4 Safety Issue and Regulations
19.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20 Applications of Bioplastics in Disposable Products
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Plastics vs Bioplastics
20.2.1 Minimum Utilization of Energy
20.2.2 Reduction of Carbon Footprint
20.2.3 Environment Friendly
20.2.4 Littering Minimization
20.2.5 Not Usage of Crude Oil
20.3 Types of Bioplastics
20.3.1 Starch-Based
20.3.2 Cellulose-Based
20.3.3 Protein-Based
20.3.4 Bioderived Polyethylene
20.3.5 Aliphatic Polyesters
20.4 Applications of Bioplast
20.4.1 Medical Applications
20.4.2 Wound Dressing Application
20.4.3 Drug Delivery Application
20.4.4 Agricultural Applications
20.4.5 3D Printing
20.4.6 Applications in Packaging Industry
20.4.7 Bioremediation Applications
20.4.8 Biofuel Applications
20.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21 Bioplastic-Based Nanocomposites for Smart Materials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Biopolymer
21.2.1 Natural Polymers
21.2.2 Synthetic Polymers
21.3 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites
21.4 Bioplastics-Based Nanocomposites for Smart Materials
21.5 Physical Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymer
21.6 Chemical Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymers
21.7 Biological Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymers
21.8 Conclusion
References
Part III: Industrial Application, Sustainability and Recycling of Bioplastics
Chapter 22 Applications of Biobased Composites in Optical Devices
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Characteristics and Advantages of Biobased Composites in Optical Devices
22.3 Polysaccharide-Based Biocomposite
22.3.1 Cellulose
22.3.2 Chitin
22.3.3 Alginate
22.4 Protein-Based Biocomposite
22.4.1 Silk
22.4.2 Collagen
22.4.3 Gelatin
22.5 Polynucleotides and Carbonized-Based Biocomposite
22.5.1 DNA Origami
22.5.2 Carbon Nanomaterials
22.6 Future Trends and Perspective
22.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23 Biocomposites and Bioplastics in Electrochemical Applications
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Electrochemistry
23.2.1 General Aspects
23.3 Nanomaterials in Biocomposite Applications
23.4 Electrochemical Applications
23.4.1 Biosensors
23.4.2 Sensors
23.4.3 Corrosion
23.4.4 Energy Applications
23.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24 Biofibers and Their Composites for Industrial Applications
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Types of Biofibers
24.2.1 Seed Fibers
24.2.2 Leaf Fibers
24.2.3 Bast Fibers
24.2.4 Stalk Fibers
24.3 Chemical and Physical Modification of Biofibers as Reinforcing Materials for Biocomposites
24.3.1 Chemical Treatment Processes
24.3.1.1 Alkalization
24.3.1.2 Silanization
24.3.1.3 Acetylation
24.3.1.4 Benzoylation
24.3.2 Physical Treatment Processes
24.3.2.1 Plasma Treatment
24.3.2.2 Ultrasound Treatment
24.3.2.3 Ultraviolet Treatment
24.4 Biofiber Composites for Industrial Applications
24.5 Challenges and Perspectives for Future Research
24.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 25 Bioplastics and Biocomposites in Flame-Retardant Applications
25.1 Introduction
25.2 A Brief Introduction to Bioplastics and Biocomposites
25.3 Flame Retardants Used in Polymer Materials
25.4 Action Mechanisms of Flame Retardants
25.4.1 Char-Formation
25.4.2 Inet Gas
25.4.3 Contact of Chemicals
25.4.4 Restriction of Vapor Phase Burning
25.5 Compatibility of Flame Retardants With Polymer Matrices
25.6 Preparation of Flame-Retardant Biocomposites and Bioplastics
25.7 Applications of Flame-Retardant Bioplastics and Biocomposites
25.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 26 Biobased Thermosets for Engineering Applications
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Sustainable Covalently Bonded Polyamides are Produced by Polycondensing a Naturally Present Functionalized Carboxyl Group (Citric Acid) with 1, 8-Octane Diol
26.3 Biodegradable Crosslinked Polyesters by Polycondensation of a Naturally Occurring Citric Acid and Glycerol
26.4 Sugar-Based Lactones to Produce Degradable Dimethacrylates
26.5 Water Facilitated, Naturally Produced Difunctional or Trifunctional Carboxyl Groups and Epoxidized Sucrose Soyate Are Made (With Sugars and Soybean Oil Lipids)
26.5.1 Learning More About the Significance of Water in the Curing Process
26.6 Isosorbide Was Employed as a Bridge in an Adhesive System After Being Introduced Into a Carbonyl Group
26.7 Thermoplastic Polymers Based on a Spiro Diacetyl Trigger Generated From Lignin
26.8 Properties of Epoxy Resin Thermosets With Acetal Addition
26.8.1 Mechanical Properties
26.8.2 Thermal Properties
26.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 27 Public Attitude Toward Recycling Routes of Bioplastics—Knowledge on Sustainable Purchase
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Production of Plastics
27.3 Application of Bioplastics
27.4 Recycle Route of Bioplastics
27.5 Public Contribution of Recycling
27.6 Awareness of Sustainable Purchase
27.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 28 Applications of Bioplastic in Composting Bags and Planting Pots
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Biodegradable Pots (Biopots)
28.2.1 Plantable Pots
28.2.2 Composting Bags
28.3 Biodegradable Planting Pots
28.3.1 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based on Pressed Fibers
28.3.2 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based on Bioplastics
28.3.3 Biopots Based on Industry and Agriculture
28.4 Growth and Quality of Plants in Biopots
28.5 Future Trends and Challenges
28.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 29 Bioplastics, Biocomposites and Biobased Polymers—Applications and Innovative Approaches for Sustainability
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Characteristics of Biobased Polymers
29.3 Biobased Polymers and Bioplastics Sustainability
29.4 Biodegradation and Standardization of Bioplastics and Biobased Polymers
29.4.1 Standard EN 13432
29.4.2 Standards for Oxodegradation
29.4.3 Australasian Bioplastics Association
29.4.4 Australian Packaging Covenant Organization
29.5 Application of Bioplastics, Biocomposites, and Biobased Polymers
29.5.1 Application in Medicine
29.5.2 Application in Packaging
29.5.3 Application in Agriculture
29.5.4 Other Applications
29.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 30 Recycling of Bioplastics: Mechanism and Economic Benefits
30.1 Overview of Popular Bioplastics
30.1.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics
30.1.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastic
30.1.3 Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Based Bioplastics
30.1.4 Polyhydroxy Alkanoate-Based Bioplastics (PHA)
30.1.5 Organic Polyethylene
30.1.6 Protein-Based Bioplastics
30.1.7 Drop-In Bioplastics
30.1.8 Fossil Fuel-Based Bioplastics
30.2 Recycling of Bioplastics
30.2.1 Background of Bioplastics Recycling
30.2.2 Options of Recycling
30.2.3 Generation of Energy From Recycling Process
30.3 Types of Recycling
30.3.1 Mechanical Recycling
30.3.1.1 Method of Mechanical Recycling
30.3.1.2 Mechanical Recycling Mechanism
30.3.1.3 Mechanical Recycling in Landscape
30.3.1.4 Sorting
30.3.2 Chemical Recycling
30.3.2.1 Solvent Purification
30.3.2.2 Chemical Depolymerization
30.3.2.3 Thermal Depolymerization
30.3.2.4 Benefits of Chemical Recycling
30.3.3 Textile Fibers Recycling Through MR or CR
30.3.4 Recycled Polyester From Plastic Bottles
30.3.5 Significance of Recycling
30.3.5.1 Significance of MR
30.3.5.2 Significance of CR
30.4 Economic Aspects of Bioplastic Recycling Industry
30.4.1 New Market and Economic Benefits
30.4.2 Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics for Economy
30.4.2.1 Usage of Specific Disposal Procedure
30.4.2.2 Metallic Contamination
30.4.2.3 Environmental Cooperation for Disposal
30.4.2.4 High Capital Cost
30.4.2.5 Usage of Cropland to Produce Items
30.4.2.6 Marine Pollution Problems
30.4.2.7 Guarantee of Net Savings
30.5 Conclusion
References
Index
EULA