Handbook of Algal Biofuels: Aspects of Cultivation, Conversion, and Biorefinery

Front Cover
Handbook of Algal Biofuels
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
1 Cyanoprokaryotes and algae: classification and habitats
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Key taxonomic characteristics of cyanoprokaryotes and algae
1.3 Cyanoprokaryotes: taxonomic classification history, modern age, and perspectives
1.3.1 History of cyanobacterial taxonomy
1.3.2 The modern age of cyanobacterial taxonomy
1.3.3 Development of the polyphasic approach
1.3.4 The modern classification of cyanobacteria
1.3.5 Present status and the future of cyanobacterial taxonomy
1.4 History and present-day algal taxonomy
1.5 Global distribution and habitats of cyanoprokaryotes and algae
1.5.1 Aerial (subaerial or aerophytic) algae
1.5.2 Terrestrial algae
1.5.3 Aquatic algae
1.5.4 Symbiotic algae
1.5.5 Parasitic algae
1.5.6 Algae living in extreme environments
1.6 Conclusions and perspectives
References
2 Global seaweeds diversity
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basis of seaweeds classification
2.3 The diverse groups of seaweeds
2.4 Seaweeds composition based on classification
2.4.1 Cell wall
2.4.2 Pigments
2.4.3 Carbohydrates
2.4.3.1 Ulvan
2.4.3.2 Laminarin
2.4.3.3 Fucans
2.4.3.4 Alginates
2.4.3.5 Agar
2.4.3.6 Carrageenan
2.4.4 Lipids
2.5 Global distribution of seaweeds
2.5.1 Temperature
2.5.2 Barriers
2.5.3 Seaweeds production
2.6 Symbiotic relation of seaweeds with other marine organisms
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Biochemical compounds of algae: sustainable energy sources for biofuel production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Lipids and fatty acids in algae
3.2.1 Lipid groups in algal cells
3.2.2 Triacylglycerol synthesis
3.2.3 Factors affecting triacylglycerol synthesis
3.2.3.1 Nutrients and trace metals
3.2.3.2 Carbon sources
3.2.3.3 Temperature
3.2.3.4 Light intensity and sources
3.2.3.5 Salinity
3.2.3.6 pH
3.2.3.7 Low-dose rate of ionizing radiation
3.2.3.8 Low-dose cold atmospheric pressure plasma
3.3 Carbohydrates
3.3.1 Carbohydrates in algae
3.3.2 Carbohydrates synthesis in algae
3.3.3 Factors affecting carbohydrate synthesis
3.3.3.1 Nutrients and trace metals
3.3.3.2 Carbon sources
3.3.3.3 Temperature
3.3.3.4 Light sources and light intensity
3.3.3.5 Salinity
3.3.3.6 pH
3.3.3.7 Low-dose gamma radiation
3.4 Proteins
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Algal physiology and cultivation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Photosynthetic efficiency of algae
4.3 Factors influencing growth and biochemical composition
4.4 Microalgae cultivation system
4.5 Artificial growth of seaweeds
4.6 Cost analysis of algae cultivation
4.7 Integrated cultivation system
4.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Genetic manipulation of microalgae for enhanced biotechnological applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Genetic modification of algae for the generation of energy and value-added metabolites
5.2.1 Enhancement of bioenergy products
5.2.2 Enhancement of carbohydrate accumulation in microalgae
5.2.3 Other value-added compound production
5.3 Advance methods used in genome editing
5.3.1 RNA interference
5.3.2 Zinc-finger nucleases for targeted genome editing
5.3.3 CRISPR/Cas9
5.3.4 Transcription activator-like effector nucleases
5.4 Future perspectives of genetic engineering in microalgae
5.5 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
6 The current status of various algal industries
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The algae industry
6.2.1 Commercial production
6.3 Main chemical compounds and bioactive compounds in algae
6.4 Energy production
6.4.1 Biofuels
6.4.1.1 Bioethanol production
6.4.1.2 Biodiesel
6.4.1.3 Biomethane Production
6.4.2 Biobutanol production
6.4.3 Bio-oil
6.4.4 Biohydrogen
6.4.5 Advantage of the algal biomass for biodiesel and bioethanol production
6.4.6 Challenges facing algae biomass for biofuel production
6.5 Algae-based nonenergy field
6.5.1 Pharmaceuticals
6.5.2 Medicinal uses of algae drugs
6.5.3 Antiviral activity of algal compounds
6.5.4 Algae as a source of antioxidant properties
6.5.5 Anticancer activity of algal substances
6.5.6 Pigments and carotenoids
6.6 Cosmetics
6.6.1 Sunscreen
6.6.2 Whitening
6.6.3 Hair care
6.7 Food ingredients and polymers
6.7.1 Alginate
6.7.2 Carragenans
6.7.3 Agar
6.7.4 Aquaculture feed
6.8 Algae industrial companies
6.9 Wastewater treatment by marine algae
6.9.1 Removal of heavy metals and dyes
6.9.2 Removal of nutrients
6.9.3 Algae as a monitor of water quality
6.10 Conclusion
References
7 Algal biomass as a promising tool for CO2 sequestration and wastewater bioremediation: an integration of green technology...
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Strategies of carbon dioxide sequestration
7.2.1 Nonbiological methods
7.2.2 Biological sequestration
7.2.3 Phytosequestration
7.3 Carbon dioxide biosequestration using microalgae
7.4 Bioremediation: an ecofriendly approach for wastewater treatment
7.5 Algae-based wastewater treatment plants
7.5.1 Algae-based municipal wastewater treatment process
7.5.1.1 Waste stabilization pond systems
7.5.1.2 High rate algal pond systems
7.5.2 Effluent from industrial wastewater treatment plants and microalgae
7.6 Algal bacterial symbiosis system for wastewater treatment: role and effect of carbon dioxide
7.6.1 Microalgae–bacteria symbiosis mechanism
7.6.2 Impact of Microalgae–bacteria system on the production of algal biomass and associated compounds
7.6.3 Microalgal–bacteria relation and production of biofuel
7.6.3.1 Biodiesel
7.6.3.2 Biohydrogen
7.6.3.3 Biogas and bioethanol
7.7 Biosorption and bioaccumulation
7.7.1 Biosorption
7.7.2 Bioaccumulation
7.7.2.1 Metal bioaccumulation induction to lipid production
7.7.2.2 Biocoagulation
7.7.2.3 Biodegradation/bioconversion
7.8 Conclusion
References
8 Application of halophilic algae for water desalination
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Marine environment
8.3 Isolation of halophilic microalgae
8.4 Efficiency of microalgae and seaweeds for water desalination
8.5 Economic feasibility
8.6 Role of algal biofuel in desalination process
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Biofuel versus fossil fuel
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Mechanisms of fossil fuel and biofuel production
9.3 Algal biomass
9.4 Algal biodiesel and other types of physicochemical properties
9.5 Combustion and emission parameters
9.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
10 Algae for biodiesel production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Lipids in algal biomass
10.2.1 Lipids biosynthesis in algal biomass
10.2.2 Lipid content and fatty acid profiles of algal biomass
10.2.3 Effect of environmental conditions on algal lipids
10.2.3.1 Nutrients effect (nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, and micronutrients)
10.2.3.2 Other environmental conditions (salinity, light, pH, and temperature)
10.3 Different methods of transesterification
10.4 Biodiesel characteristics
10.4.1 Boiling point, flash point, and calorific value
10.4.2 Cetane number, acid number, iodine number, and sulfur content
10.4.3 Cloud point, cold filter plugging point, and pour point
10.4.4 Kinematic viscosity and density
10.4.5 Oxidation stability
10.4.6 Water and sediment content
10.5 Economic feasibility
10.6 Conclusions and perspectives
References
11 Eco-friendly biogas production from algal biomass
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Structural and chemical composition of seaweeds
11.2.1 Moisture and salt content
11.2.2 Structure composition
11.2.3 Polysaccharides
11.2.4 Chemical composition variability
11.3 Anaerobic digestion
11.3.1 Microbiology of anaerobic digestion
11.3.1.1 Hydrolysis
11.3.1.2 Acidogenesis
11.3.1.3 Acetogenesis
11.3.1.4 Methanogenesis
11.3.2 Anaerobic digestion of seaweed
11.3.3 Optimization of anaerobic digestion
11.3.4 Anaerobic digestion process parameters
11.3.4.1 Temperature and digester configuration
11.3.4.2 Codigestion
11.4 Pretreatments
11.4.1 Physical treatment
11.4.1.1 Mechanical treatment
11.4.1.2 Size reduction
11.4.1.3 Thermal treatment
11.4.1.4 Microwave pretreatment
11.4.1.5 Ultrasonic treatment
11.4.1.6 Electrokinetic disintegration
11.4.1.7 Extrusion
11.4.2 Chemical treatment
11.4.2.1 Alkali or acidic treatment
11.4.2.2 Peroxide treatment
11.4.2.3 Oxidative
11.4.2.4 Ozonation
11.4.3 Biological pretreatment
11.4.4 Nanoparticles treatment
11.4.5 Inhibitor removal
11.5 The challenges of biogas production from algae
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Algal biomass for bioethanol and biobutanol production
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Current biofuels status
12.3 Bioalcohols
12.3.1 Bioethanol
12.3.2 Biobutanol
12.4 Microalgae
12.5 Biofuel production processes
12.5.1 Biomass production
12.5.1.1 The open pond production unit
12.5.1.2 Closed photobioreactor production unit
12.5.1.3 Hybrid two-stage production unit
12.5.1.4 Heterotrophic biomass production
12.5.1.5 Mixotrophic biomass production
12.5.2 Biomass recovery/harvesting microalgal biomass
12.5.2.1 Bulk harvesting
12.5.2.2 Filtration
12.5.2.3 Flocculation
12.5.2.4 Flotation
12.5.3 The dewatering process and biomass extraction
12.5.4 Bioalcohols conversion
12.6 Bioethanol from microalgae
12.7 Biobutanol from microalgae
12.8 Macroalgae
12.9 Aquaculture seaweed cultivation
12.9.1 Land-based cultivation systems
12.9.1.1 Tanks
12.9.1.2 Ponds
12.9.1.3 Seaweed cultivation in the sea
12.9.1.4 Species-specific cultivation methods employed
12.10 Bioethanol from macroalgae
12.11 Biobutanol from macroalgae
12.12 Conclusion
References
13 Thermochemical conversion of algal biomass
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Thermochemical conversion
13.3 Pyrolysis
13.4 Hydrothermal liquefaction
13.5 Gasification
13.6 Torrefaction
13.7 Direct combustion
13.8 Economic feasibility
13.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
14 Direct biohydrogen production from algae
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Hydrogen production and applications
14.1.2 Hydrogen as new vehicle energy source
14.1.3 Development of hydrogen-dependent energy storage systems
14.2 Biohydrogen as efficient future fuels
14.2.1 Benefits of biohydrogen and future prospects
14.3 Direct cellular biohydrogen production
14.3.1 The photosynthetic electron transport chain in the natural system
14.3.2 Photosystem II
14.3.3 Photosystem I
14.3.4 Hydrogenases
14.3.4.1 NiFe-hydrogenases
14.3.4.2 FeFe-hydrogenases
14.3.4.3 Fe-hydrogenases
14.3.4.4 Improving hydrogenases activity
14.4 Photosynthetic hydrogen production—cyanobacteria
14.5 Enhancing hydrogen production in microalgae by gene technology
14.5.1 Overcoming O2 sensitivity of hydrogenase
14.5.1.1 Partial photosystem II inactivation
14.5.1.2 Increased O2 consumption/sequestration
14.5.2 Elimination of competing pathways
14.6 Biosystem and semiartificial system for photocurrent and biohydrogen productions
14.6.1 Hydrogenase-ferredoxin fusion
14.6.2 Complex of photosystem I and NiFe-hydrogenases via PsaE
14.6.3 Wiring photosystem I through nanoconstruction
14.6.4 Photosystem I-hydrogenase complex via nanowire from phylloquinone
14.6.5 Fabrication of PsaD-hoxYH complex
14.7 Conclusion
References
15 Biojet fuels production from algae: conversion technologies, characteristics, performance, and process simulation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biomass jet fuel conversion pathways
15.2.1 Alcohol-to-jet conversion pathways
15.2.1.1 Process description
15.2.1.2 Economic perspective
15.2.1.3 Assessment of life cycle
15.2.2 Oil-to-jet conversion pathways
15.2.2.1 Hydrogenated esters and fatty acids
15.2.2.2 Process of catalytic hydrothermolysis
15.2.2.3 Hydrotreated depolymerized cellulosic jet
15.2.2.4 Economic perspective
15.2.2.5 Assessment of life cycle
15.2.3 Process of gas-to-jet fuel
15.2.3.1 Process illustration
15.2.3.1.1 Process of Fisher Tropsch biomass to liquid
15.2.3.1.2 Process of gas fermentation
15.2.3.2 Economic perspective
15.2.3.3 Assessment of life cycle
15.2.4 Process of sugar to jet fuel
15.2.4.1 Sugar to jet processes
15.2.4.1.1 Process of sugars to hydrocarbons catalytic upgrading
15.2.4.1.2 Direct sugar to hydrocarbons
15.2.4.2 Economic prospects
15.2.4.3 Assessment of life cycle
15.3 Algae biojet fuel
15.4 Biojet fuel performance characteristics
15.4.1 Stability of thermal oxidation
15.4.1.1 Thermal stability
15.4.1.2 Oxidation stability
15.4.2 Combustion characteristics
15.4.2.1 Smoke point
15.4.2.2 Particulate matter emissions
15.4.2.3 Gaseous emissions
15.4.2.4 Derived cetane number
15.5 Fuel compatibility with current fueling system of aircraft
15.5.1 Volume-swells of seal material
15.5.2 Lubricity
15.5.3 Low-temperature-fluidity
15.5.3.1 Freezing point
15.5.3.2 Kinematic viscosity at −20°C
15.5.3.3 Fuel volatility
15.5.3.4 Flash point
15.5.4 Distillation property
15.5.5 Fuel-metering and aircraft-range
15.5.6 Fuel density
15.6 Process simulation
15.7 Conclusions
References
16 Photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel cells and its future upscaling aspects
16.1 Introduction
16.2 What are photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel cell
16.3 Effect of light on the performance of photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel cells
16.3.1 Light-emitting diodes and photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel cells
16.4 DNA sequencing of microbial genomes
16.5 Integrated approaches of photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel cells
16.5.1 Bioelectricity production
16.5.2 Recycling wastewater
16.5.3 Production of value-added chemicals
16.6 Future of photosynthetic microalgal microbial fuel cells using diatoms
16.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
17 Sequential algal biofuel production through whole biomass conversion
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Different processes of algal biofuel production
17.2.1 Biohydrogen
17.2.2 Biomethane
17.2.3 Biodiesel
17.2.4 Bioethanol/biobutanol (bioalcohols)
17.2.5 Algal fuel cells
17.3 Recent trends in sequential algal biofuel production
17.4 Conclusion
References
18 By-products recycling of algal biofuel toward bioeconomy
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Applications of algae by-products
18.3 Microalgal by-products of biomasses conversion processes
18.4 By-products from ethanol production
18.5 Glycerol by-products of biodiesel productions
18.6 By-products from bio-oil fuel production
18.7 Microalgal-based protein by-products
18.8 Environmental impact of biodiesel and by-products
18.9 Economic feasibility of microalgae biodiesel
18.10 Future research focus and perspectives
18.11 Conclusion
References
19 Harnessing solar radiation for potential algal biomass production
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Solar cells
19.2.1 First-generation solar cell
19.2.2 Second-generation (thin film) solar cells
19.2.3 Third-generation solar cells
19.2.4 Fourth-generation solar cells
19.3 Solar panel
19.4 Different applications of solar radiation
19.4.1 Agrophotovoltaic
19.4.2 Aquavoltaic
19.4.3 Solar tractors
19.4.4 Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
19.4.5 Solar water pumping
19.4.6 Solar dryers
19.4.7 Solar distillation
19.4.8 Biomass to electricity conversion using solar radiation
19.4.9 Solar cooker
19.4.10 Solar water heater
19.5 Conversion of solar radiation to algal biomass
19.5.1 The mechanism of light absorption in algae
19.5.2 Strategic management of harnessing solar radiation for algal cultivation
19.5.3 Constraints effecting the growth of algae
19.6 Solar tracking system
19.6.1 Classification of solar trackers
19.6.1.1 Classification based on their control
19.6.1.2 Classification based on driving systems
19.6.1.3 Classification based on degree of freedom
19.6.2 Classification based on tracking strategy
19.6.3 Efficacy of solar tracker in harnessing solar energy for algal cultivation
19.6.4 Different modes of operation of a solar tracker coupled with photobioreactor
19.7 Solar to heat for thermochemical conversion of algal biomass
19.7.1 Classification of thermochemical processes
19.8 Technoeconomic considerations for different routes of conversion of algae
19.8.1 Study based on four different scenarios
19.8.2 Study based on 3 different biorefinery routes
19.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflict of interest
References
Further reading
20 Physical stress for enhanced biofuel production from microalgae
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Nutrient stress
20.3 Physical stress
20.3.1 Temperature
20.3.2 Carbon dioxide
20.3.3 pH
20.3.4 Light
20.3.5 Radiation
20.3.5.1 Ultraviolet radiation
20.3.5.2 Gamma radiation
20.3.5.3 Ion beam radiation
20.3.6 Magnetic field
20.3.7 Atmospheric room temperature plasma
20.4 Challenges and future directions of physical stress
20.5 Conclusion
References
21 Microalgal–bacterial consortia for biomass production and wastewater treatment
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Interchange of substrates, intercellular communication, and horizontal gene transfer in microalgal–bacterial consortia
21.3 Distribution and role of microalgal–bacterial consortia in the wastewater treatment
21.3.1 Role of microalgal–bacterial consortia in mitigation of carbon and nutrients
21.3.2 Heavy metal removal and sequestering of hazardous waste by microalgal–bacterial consortia
21.4 Biofuel and bioproducts generation by microalgal–bacterial consortia
21.5 Reduction in CO2 emission and electricity generation
21.5.1 Implementation of genomic approaches for wastewater treatment
21.6 Role of lipase in wastewater treatment
21.6.1 Microbial lipase-mediated biocatalysis
21.6.2 Potential microbial strains used for the processing of complex oil and lipid
21.6.3 Analysis of the cumulative effect of enzymatic prehydrolysis on anaerobic digestion of various industrial wastewaters
21.6.4 Role of lipase enzymes in activated sludge systems
21.6.5 Immobilized enzyme and whole-cell biocatalysts in lipid bioremediation
21.6.6 Conversion of lipid contaminated wastewater into value-added products
21.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
22 Process intensification for sustainable algal fuels production
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Principles and domains of process intensification
22.1.2 Algal to biofuels pathways
22.2 Intensification of photobioreactors
22.2.1 Light saturation and light dilution
22.2.1.1 Solar tracking systems
22.2.1.2 Spectral filtration and shifting
22.2.2 Light attenuation and light path length reduction
22.2.2.1 Thin layer reactors
22.2.2.2 Biofilm reactors
22.2.2.3 Light guides
22.2.3 Carbon dioxide distribution
22.2.3.1 Microbubbling and membrane diffusers
22.2.3.2 High alkalinity
22.3 Harvesting
22.3.1 Membrane filtration
22.3.2 Flotation
22.4 Biomass conversion to biofuel
22.4.1 Cell disruption
22.4.1.1 Pulse electric field
22.4.1.2 Simultaneous cell disruption and lipid extraction
22.4.2 Intensification of drying and oil extraction
22.4.3 Biodiesel production
22.4.4 Wet processing via hydrothermal liquefaction
22.5 Conclusion
References
23 Life cycle assessment for microalgae-derived biofuels
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Pros and cons of algal biofuel production
23.3 Life cycle assessment approach
23.3.1 Phases of the life cycle assessment
23.3.1.1 Goal determination and scope definition
23.3.1.2 Inventory analysis
23.3.1.3 Impact assessment
23.3.1.4 Interpretation
23.3.1.5 Reporting
23.3.2 Life cycle assessment approach for algal-derived biofuel
23.3.2.1 Assessment of biofuel raw materials
23.3.2.2 Synthesis of oil/lipid yield of microalgae
23.3.2.3 Assessment of species used for biofuel production
23.3.2.4 Assessment of cultivation systems and reactor types
23.3.2.5 Assessment of harvesting and extraction processes and lipid quantification
23.3.2.6 Assessment of algal residuals processing (coproducts/byproducts)
23.4 Benefits on application of life cycle assessment for microalgal biofuel commercial production
23.5 Current scenario on production and application of biofuels
23.6 Future prospective
23.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
24 An overview of the algal biofuel technology: key challenges and future directions
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Challenges
24.2.1 Cultivation
24.2.1.1 Macroalgae cultivation
24.2.1.2 Microalgal cultivation
24.2.2 Harvesting
24.2.2.1 Macroalgae harvesting
24.2.2.2 Microalgae harvesting
24.2.2.2.1 Conventional harvesting methods
Centrifugation
Flotation
Filtration
Flocculation
24.2.2.2.2 Advanced harvesting method
Magnetic nanoparticles
Polymeric nanomaterials
Hybrid nanoparticles
24.3 Lipid extraction
24.3.1 Biofuel production
24.3.2 Economic studies
24.4 Future perspectives
24.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
25 History and recent advances of algal biofuel commercialization
25.1 Introduction and history of biofuel production
25.2 Recent advancement in large-scale biofuel production
25.3 Pilot-scale and large-scale trials of algal biofuel production
25.4 Top companies of biofuel production from different feedstocks
25.4.1 Eni Gela biorefinery in Europe
25.4.2 Australian Renewable Fuels Limited
25.4.3 Blue fire renewables
25.4.4 Cosan Limited
25.5 Top companies of algal products commercialization
25.5.1 Earthrise Nutritionals
25.5.2 Yunnan Green A Biological Project Co. Ltd
25.5.3 Inner Mongolia Rejuve Biotech Co. Ltd
25.5.4 Fuqing King Dnarmsa Spirulina Co. Ltd
25.5.5 Far East Microalgae Industries Co. Ltd
25.5.6 Cyanotech Corporation
25.6 Top companies of biofuel production from algae
25.6.1 Sapphire Energy Limited
25.6.2 Solix Biofuels company
25.6.3 Algenol Biofuels
25.6.4 Solazyme Inc
25.7 Biofuel production and its impact on environment
25.8 Challenges of biofuel commercialization from algae
25.9 Future prospective of biofuel
References
26 Biointelligent quotient house as an algae-based green building
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Green buildings
26.3 Renewable energy applications in green buildings
26.4 Biointelligent quotient in Hamburg, Germany
26.5 University of technology Sydney green building case study
26.6 Conclusion
References
27 National Renewable Energy Laboratory
27.1 Introduction
27.2 National Renewable Energy Laboratory
27.2.1 National Renewable Energy Laboratory history
27.2.2 Mission and programs
27.2.3 Bioenergy
27.2.4 Algal biofuels
27.3 History of National Renewable Energy Laboratory algal biofuels projects
27.3.1 Establishment of a 400+ bioenergy-focused microalgae strain collection using rapid, high-throughput methodologies
27.3.2 Molecular foundations of algal biofuel production: proteomics and transcriptomics of algal oil production
27.3.3 Evaluation of regulated enzymatic disruption of algal cell walls as an oil extraction technology
27.3.4 Development of novel microalgal production and downstream processing technologies for alternative biofuels application
27.3.5 Efficient use of algal biomass residues for anaerobic digestion biopower production coupled with nutrient recycle
27.3.6 Development of robust and high-throughput characterization technologies for algal biomass
27.4 Principal project
27.4.1 Project presentation
27.4.2 Project description
27.5 Microalgae isolation and characteristics during the project
27.5.1 Water sample collection and analysis
27.5.2 Laboratory conditions for growth algae
27.5.3 Laboratory water sampling preparation and enrichment
27.5.4 Fluorescent activated cell sorting for isolation of single cells
27.5.5 Culture maintenance
27.5.6 Summary of National Renewable Energy Laboratory project results
27.6 Limitation of industrial application
27.7 Conclusion of the project
References
28 Aquatic species program
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Introduction to US department of energy
28.2.1 History of the department of energy
28.2.2 Department of energy mission
28.2.3 Organization
28.3 History of the algae species program
28.4 Microalgal isolation and characteristics
28.4.1 Sampling and collection
28.4.2 Serial dilution
28.4.3 Streak plate method
28.4.4 Density centrifugation
28.4.5 Enrichment media
28.4.6 Micromanipulation
28.4.7 Automated techniques
28.5 Relationship between National Renewable Energy Laboratory and algae species program
28.6 Limitations of industrial applications
28.6.1 High-cost
28.6.2 Resource availability
28.6.3 Cultivation challenges
28.6.4 The disconnect between the lab and the field
28.6.5 Dust issue
28.6.6 Commercialization potential
28.7 Conclusions of the project
Acknowledgments
References
29 Algal fuel production by industry: process simulation and economic assessment
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Life cycle assessment toward microalgae industrialization
29.3 Operating conditions
29.4 Algal biodiesel
29.5 Process simulation
29.6 Process description
29.7 Economic assessment
References
Index
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