Green Technologies for Waste Management: A Wealth from Waste Approach

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Authors
Part I: Environmental Wastes: Status, Prospects and Management
1. Waste: Classification, Generation, and Status
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition and Classification of Waste
1.2.1 Waste: The Concept
1.2.2 Classification of Waste
1.2.2.1 Classification Based on the Physical State
1.2.2.1.1 Solid Wastes
1.2.2.1.2 Liquid Wastes
1.2.2.1.3 Gaseous Wastes
1.2.2.2 Origin/Source-Based Classification
1.2.2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
1.2.2.2.2 Industrial Wastes
1.2.2.2.3 Institutional/Commercial Wastes
1.2.2.2.4 Residential Waste
1.2.2.2.5 Agricultural Wastes
1.2.2.2.6 Construction and Demolition Waste
1.2.2.2.7 Biomedical Wastes
1.2.2.2.8 Mining Wastes
1.2.2.2.9 E-Waste
1.2.2.3 Classification of Wastes Based on Degradability
1.2.2.3.1 Biodegradable/Organic Wastes
1.2.2.3.2 Non-Biodegradable/Inorganic Wastes
1.2.2.4 Classification of Wastes Based on Toxicity
1.2.2.4.1 Hazardous Wastes
1.2.2.4.2 Non-Hazardous Wastes
1.3 Techniques to Estimate Waste Generation
1.3.1 Load Count Analysis
1.3.2 Weight Volume Analysis
1.3.3 Material Mass Balance Analysis
1.4 Waste Generation, Composition, and Status (Global and National Scenario)
1.4.1 Global Generation of Waste
1.4.1.1 Waste Generation in Different Regions
1.4.1.2 Global Waste Generation in Different Income Groups
1.4.2 Global Waste Composition
1.4.3 Global Projections of Waste Generation
1.4.4 Status of Environmental Waste in India
1.4.4.1 Composition and Status of Municipal Solid Waste in India
1.5 Conclusion
References
2. Waste as a Resource
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification of Wastes
2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
2.2.2 Industrial Wastes
2.2.3 Institutional/Commercial Wastes
2.2.4 Agricultural Wastes
2.3 Resource Generation from Waste
2.3.1 Resource Generation from Agricultural Wastes
2.3.2 Resource from Woody Plants Waste
2.3.3 Resources from Urban Biowastes and Animal Husbandry
2.3.3.1 Direct Land Application
2.3.3.1.1 Dairy Waste-Derived Lacto-gypsum as Soil Amendments
2.3.3.2 Direct Animal Feed (DAF)
2.3.3.3 Biological/Biochemical Conversion of Biowaste to Resource
2.3.3.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion
2.3.3.3.2 Fermentation (Ethanol Formation)
2.3.3.3.3 Biohydrogen Production
2.3.3.4 Resource Generation through Physico-Chemical Treatment of Biowastes
2.3.3.4.1 Transesterification
2.3.3.4.2 Densification
2.3.3.5 Resource Generation through Thermochemical Treatment
2.3.3.5.1 Pyrolysis
2.3.3.5.2 Liquefaction
2.3.3.5.3 Gasification
2.3.4 Resources from Municipal Sewage Sludge
2.3.4.1 Amino Acids and Proteins
2.3.4.2 Short-Chain Fatty Acids
2.3.4.3 Enzymes
2.3.4.4 Bio-Fertilizers and -Pesticides
2.3.4.5 Bio-Plastics
2.3.4.6 Bio-Flocculants
2.3.4.7 Biosurfactants
2.3.5 Valorization of Crop Byproducts/Processed Agrowastes
2.3.5.1 Agricultural Wastes as Low-Cost Adsorbents
2.3.5.2 Biochar
2.3.5.3 Cellulose and Pectin
2.3.5.4 Microbial Protein
2.3.5.5 Natural Rubber
2.3.5.6 Plant Fibers and Paper
2.3.5.7 Nanocellulose
2.3.5.8 Lignin
2.3.5.9 Oils and Fats (O and F)
2.3.5.10 Terpenes
2.3.5.11 Natural Polyelectrolytes
2.3.5.12 Nanoparticles (NPs)
2.3.5.13 Graphene
2.3.6 Resource Generation from Industrial Wastes
2.3.6.1 Bakery Products
2.3.6.2 Biocompost
2.3.6.3 Mushroom Production Oil Palm Industry Waste
2.3.6.4 Nutritional Supplements and Medical Aids from Aquaculture Waste
2.3.6.5 Biofuel from Pulp and Paper Industry Waste
2.3.6.6 Lac Dye and Gummy Mass from Lac Industry Waste
2.3.7 Algae as Biofuel Resource
References
3. Life Cycle Assessment of Waste Management Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Product Life Cycle
3.3 Methodology of LCA in Context of Waste Management
3.3.1 Goal
3.3.2 Scope
3.3.2.1 Product System
3.3.2.2 Functional Unit
3.3.2.3 Reference Flow
3.3.2.4 System Boundaries
3.3.2.5 Assumptions and Limitations
3.3.2.6 Data Quality Requirements
3.3.2.7 Multifunctionality and Allocation
3.3.2.8 Documentation of Data
3.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
3.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
3.3.5 Interpretation
3.4 Conclusion
References
Part II: Green Technologies for Wealth Generation
4. Bioremediation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Bioremediation
4.2.1 Ex-Situ Bioremediation
4.2.1.1 Landfarming
4.2.1.2 Compositing
4.2.1.3 Biopiling
4.2.2 In-situ Bioremediation
4.2.2.1 Bioventing
4.2.2.2 Bioslurping
4.2.2.3 Biosparging
4.2.2.4 Bioaugmentation
4.2.2.5 Biostimulation
4.2.2.6 Phytoremediation
4.2.2.7 Phytoextraction
4.2.2.8 Phytotransformation
4.2.2.9 Phytostabilisation
4.2.2.10 Phytodegradation
4.2.2.11 Phytohydraulics
4.2.2.12 Phytofiltration
4.2.2.13 Phytovolatilization
4.3 Factors Affecting Phytoremediation
4.3.1 Types of Contaminants
4.3.2 Concentration of Contaminants
4.3.3 Plant Growth Rate
4.3.4 Characteristics of Plants
4.3.5 Roots' Nature
4.4 Bioremediation of Various Pollutants
4.4.1 Organic Pollutants
4.4.2 Inorganic Pollutants
4.4.3 Heavy Metals
4.5 Limitation of Bioremediation
4.6 Root-Zone Technology
4.7 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
5. Biodegradation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nature of Pollutants
5.3 Biodegradation Methods
5.3.1 Composting
5.3.1.1 Composting Methods
5.3.1.2 Microbiological Aspects of Composting
5.3.1.3 Biochemical Aspects of Composting
5.3.1.4 Factors Affecting Composting Process
5.3.1.4.1 Temperature and Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio
5.3.1.4.2 Oxygen and pH
5.3.1.4.3 Moisture Content, Particle Size, and Raw Material Texture
5.3.2 Vermicomposting
5.3.2.1 Role of Earthworm in Vermicomposting
5.3.2.2 Vermicomposting Methods
5.3.2.3 Factors Affecting Vermicomposting
5.3.2.4 Soil Fertility Maintenance through Vermicomposting
5.3.3 Solid State Fermentation (SSF)
5.3.3.1 Organisms Used for SSF
5.3.3.2 Diversity of SSF Applications to Valorize Waste and Biomass
5.3.4 Bio-Fertilizer Production
5.3.4.1 PGPR as Biofertilizer
5.3.4.1.1 Phytohormone Production through PGPR
5.3.4.2 Types of Biofertilizers
5.3.4.2.1 Encapsulated and Lyophilized Biofertilizers
5.3.4.2.2 Nano-Biofertilizer
5.3.4.2.3 Biofilm biofertilizer (BFBF)
5.3.5 Biofilm Technology
5.3.5.1 Benefits of Bacterial Biofilms
5.3.6 Aerobic Granular Sludge Technology
5.3.6.1 Formation of Aerobic Granules
5.3.6.2 Applications of Aerobic Granular Sludge Reactors
5.3.7 Biopolymer Technology
5.3.7.1 Classification of Biopolymers
5.3.7.2 Applications of Biopolymers
5.3.8 Electronic Waste (E-Waste) Management
5.3.8.1 Metallurgical Technologies to Treat E-Waste
5.3.8.1.1 Pyro-Metallurgical Processes
5.3.8.1.2 Hydrometallurgical Process
5.3.8.1.3 Biohydrometallurgical Processes to Treat E-Waste
5.3.8.1.4 Bioleaching of Metals from E-Waste
References
6. Biosorption Technology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biosorption: A Green Option for Pollution Abatement
6.2.1 Biosorption Mechanisms
6.2.2 Factors Affecting Biosorption
6.3 Affinity Ligand-Based Technologies
6.4 Bioflocculation Technology
6.4.1 Mechanism of Bioflocculation
6.4.2 Measures of Bioflocculation
6.4.2.1 Flocculation Mediated by Plant-Based Product
6.4.2.2 Animal-Based Bioflocculants
6.4.2.3 Microbial Bioflocculation
6.4.2.3.1 Bacterial Flocculants
6.4.2.3.2 Flocculation Induced by Fungus
6.4.2.4 Autoflocculation
6.4.3 Bioflocculants' Applications
6.4.3.1 Biopharmaceuticals
6.4.3.2 Pulp and Paper Industry
6.4.3.3 Precious Metal Extraction
6.4.3.4 Production of Upstream Oil and Gas
6.5 Biocoagulation
6.6 Biosurfactants
6.6.1 Sources of Biosurfactants
6.6.1.1 Glycolipids
6.6.1.2 Lipopeptides and Lipoproteins
6.6.1.3 Surfactin
6.6.1.4 Lichenysin
6.6.1.5 Neutral Lipids, Phospholipids, and Fatty Acids
6.6.1.6 Polymeric Biosurfactants
6.6.2 Applications of Biosurfactants
6.6.2.1 Food Industries
6.6.2.2 Removal of Oil and Petroleum Contamination
6.6.2.3 Bioremediation of Toxic Pollutants
6.7 Biochar Technology
6.7.1 Role of Biochar in Soil Health Management
6.7.2 Effect of Biochar on Plant Growth and Soil Biota
6.7.3 Biochar: A Solution to Mitigate Climate Change
References
7. Single-Cell Protein Technology
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Microorganisms for Single-Cell Protein
7.2.1 SCP from Algae
7.2.2 SCP from Fungi
7.2.3 SCP from Bacteria
7.3 Industrial Production of SCPs
7.3.1 Fermentation Strategies
7.3.1.1 Submerged Fermentation
7.3.1.2 Semisolid Fermentation
7.3.1.3 Solid-State Fermentation
7.4 Potential Feedstocks/Substrates for SCP Production
7.4.1 Industrial Wastes
7.4.1.1 Molasses
7.4.1.2 Dairy Waste
7.4.1.3 Fruit Waste (Simple Sugar Rich)
7.4.1.4 Starch Rich Sources and Bran
7.4.1.5 Soybean Meal
7.4.1.6 Methanol
7.4.2 Agricultural Wastes
7.5 SCP Production Process
7.5.1 Media Preparation
7.5.1.1 Media Preparation Using Fruit and Vegetable Wastes
7.5.1.2 Media Preparation Using Lignocellulose Wastes
7.5.1.3 Media Preparation Using Liquid Waste
7.5.2 Enrichment of the Media
7.5.3 Sterilization of Growth Media
7.5.4 Inoculum Isolation and Growing
7.5.5 Inoculation and Incubation
7.5.6 Harvesting and Protein Content Determination
7.5.7 Processing of SCP
7.6 Patented Technologies for Single-Cell Protein Production
7.6.1 The BEL Process
7.6.2 The Symba Process
7.6.3 Pekilo Process
7.6.4 Bioprotein Process
7.6.5 Pruteen Process
7.6.6 Quorn Production
7.6.7 The Waterloo Process
7.7 Safety of SCPs
7.8 Recovery of Other Value-Added Products During SCP Production
7.8.1 Production of Ethanol
7.8.2 Production of Hydrogen
7.8.3 Production of Methane
7.8.4 Production of Biodiesel
7.8.5 Production of Bioactive Compounds by Fermentation of Food Waste
7.9 Arena of SCP Applications
7.10 Benefits and Drawbacks of Single-Cell Protein
7.11 Challenges Ahead
References
8. Bioenergy Production Technologies
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Fuel Cell Technology
8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 Principle
8.2.3 Microbial Resources
8.2.4 Electron Transfer Mechanism
8.2.5 Microbial Fuel Cell Designs
8.2.5.1 Single-Chamber MFCs (SCMFCs)
8.2.5.2 Double-Chamber MFC
8.2.5.3 Up-Flow Microbial Fuel Cell
8.2.5.4 Stacked Microbial Fuel Cell
8.2.5.5 Forced-Flow MFCs
8.2.6 Applications of Microbial Fuel Cells
8.2.7 Future Challenge
8.3 Biohydrogen Production
8.3.1 Biohydrogen Production Technologies
8.3.1.1 Dark/Anaerobic Fermentation
8.3.1.2 Bio-Photolysis
8.3.1.3 Photofermentation
8.3.1.4 Hybrid System
8.3.2 Limiting Factors in Biohydrogen Production Systems
8.3.3 Future Prospects
8.4 Microalgal Valorization Technology
8.4.1 Algal Strains, Cultivation, and Harvesting and Dewatering
8.4.2 Pretreatment of Microalgal Biomass
8.4.2.1 Physical Pretreatment
8.4.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment
8.4.2.3 Biological Pretreatment
8.4.2.4 Combined Pretreatment
8.4.3 Biological Hydrogen Production
8.4.3.1 Biohydrogen Production from Microalgal Biomass by Dark Fermentation
8.4.3.2 Biohydrogen Production from Microalgal Biomass by Photofermentation
8.4.3.3 Biohydrogen Production by Co-Digestion of Microalgal Biomass
8.4.4 Challenges and Future Prospects
8.5 Pelletization
8.5.1 Biomass Sources
8.5.2 Pelletization Process
8.5.3 Post-Pelletization Process (Thermal Conversion Modes)
8.6 Coal-Bed Methane Technology
8.6.1 CBM Reservoir Exploration and Geology
8.6.2 CBM Production Process
8.6.2.1 Adsorption Isotherms
8.6.2.2 Evaluation
8.6.2.3 Drilling
8.6.2.4 Coring
8.6.2.5 Hydraulic Fracturing
8.6.3 Enhancement Techniques
8.6.3.1 CO2 Injection
8.6.3.2 N2 Injection
8.6.3.3 N2 and CO2 Mixture
8.6.4 Microbially Enhanced Coalbed Methane (MECBM)
8.6.5 Limitations
8.7 Conclusion
References
9. Nanobiotechnology: Concept and Scope for Wealth Generation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Nanoparticles Synthesis
9.2.1 Bioresources for NP Synthesis
9.2.1.1 Food and Agro-Industrial Waste: A Source of Polyphenols
9.2.1.2 Forest and Garden Waste
9.2.1.3 Plants-Mediated NBPs
9.2.1.4 Bacteria-Assisted NPs
9.2.1.5 Fungi-Mediated NPs
9.2.1.6 Algae-Mediated NPs
9.3 Applications of Biogenic Nanoparticles
9.3.1 Medical Applications
9.3.2 Industrial Applications
9.3.3 Environmental Applications
9.3.4 Energy Production
9.3.5 Agricultural Applications
9.3.6 Food Processing and Safety
9.3.7 Electronics Field
References
10. Hydrometallurgy and Biomining
10.1 Hydrometallurgy: Introduction
10.2 Hydrometallurgical Process
10.2.1 Types of Metal Leaching
10.2.1.1 Bioleaching
10.2.1.2 Chemical Leaching
10.2.1.2.1 Acid Leaching
10.2.1.2.2 Alkaline Leaching
10.2.1.2.3 Thiosulfate Leaching
10.2.1.2.4 Thiourea Leaching
10.2.1.2.5 Halide Leaching
10.2.1.2.6 Cyanide Leaching
10.2.2 Concentration and Purification of Metals
10.2.2.1 Solvent Extraction
10.2.2.2 Ion-Exchange
10.2.2.3 Adsorption
10.2.3 Metal Recovery
10.2.3.1 Electrodeposition
10.2.3.2 Precipitation
10.3 Recent Advances
10.4 Future Perspectives
10.5 Biomining: Introduction
10.6 Why Biomining?
10.7 Biomining Processes
10.7.1 Mechanisms of Biomining
10.7.1.1 Pyrite and Other Non-Acid-Soluble Metal Sulfides: Thiosulfate Pathway
10.7.1.2 Acid-Soluble Metal Sulfides: Polysulfide Pathway
10.7.2 Factors Affecting Biomining
10.8 Metals Recovered in Biomining Processes
10.8.1 Copper
10.8.2 Gold
10.8.3 Uranium
10.8.4 Biomining of Other Metals
10.9 Recent Developments in Biomining Technologies
10.9.1 Bioleaching at Low Redox Potentials
10.9.2 Bioreductive Dissolution of Minerals
References
11. Constructed Wetlands and Microcosm Technology
Constructed Wetlands
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Types of Constructed Wetlands
11.2.1 Constructed Wetlands with Free Water Surface
11.2.2 Constructed Wetlands with Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow
11.2.3 Constructed Wetlands with Vertical Sub-Surface Flow
11.2.4 Hybrid Constructed Wetlands
11.3 Sustainable Design and Operation of Constructed Wetlands
11.3.1 Constructed Wetland Vegetation
11.3.2 Constructed Wetland Substrate
11.3.3 Constructed Wetland Microorganisms
11.3.4 Constructed Wetland Design Criteria
11.3.4.1 Design Criteria for Free Water Surface Constructed Wetlands
11.3.4.1.1 Detention Time for BOD Removal
11.3.4.1.2 Aspect Ratio
11.3.4.1.3 Mosquito Control
11.3.4.1.4 Vegetation Harvesting
11.3.4.1.5 Design Criteria for Nutrient Removal
11.3.4.2 Design Criteria for Sub-Surface Flow Constructed Wetlands
11.3.4.2.1 Detention Time
11.3.4.2.2 BOD and Solids Loading Rates
11.3.4.2.3 Aspect Ratio
11.3.4.2.4 Design Criteria for Nutrient Removal
11.3.4.2.5 Media Depth and Size
11.4 Treated Wastewater Reuse Opportunities
11.4.1 Case Studies on Constructed Wetlands for Treated Wastewater Reuse
11.5 Guidelines for Decision Making in Constructing Wetlands
11.6 Challenges in Constructed Wetlands (CWS)
11.6.1 Environmental Impacts
11.6.1.1 Climate Change
11.6.1.2 Global Warming
11.6.2 The CWs Mosquito Outbreaks
11.6.3 Cyanobacterial Threat to CWs
11.6.4 CWs Operational Reassessment
11.7 The Current Scenario
Microcosm Technology
11.8 Microcosms
11.9 Historical and Current Applications
11.10 Design Factors
11.10.1 Sourcing, Seeding, and Energy Matching
11.10.2 Spatial Scaling, Wall, and Isolation Effects
11.10.3 Temporal Scaling
11.10.4 Replication, Variability, and Divergence
11.11 Similarity to Natural Ecosystem
References
Part III: Holistic Approach for Waste Management and Bioproducts Recovery
12. Principles and Practices for Zero Waste Concept
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Zero Waste Concept
12.3 Key Factors for Zero Waste Development
12.3.1 Zero Waste Extraction and Process
12.3.2 Zero Waste Design and Production
12.3.3 Sustainable Consumption and Waste Generation
12.3.4 Zero Waste Management and Treatment
12.3.5 Zero Waste Regulatory Policies and Assessment
12.3.6 Overarching Guidelines for Strategic ZW Development
12.3.6.1 Zero Waste Certification
12.4 The Notion of the "Zero Waste City"
12.5 Decoupling and Improvement of Environmental Burdens
12.6 The Holistic Model of Zero Waste City
12.6.1 Extended Producer and Consumer Responsibilities
12.6.2 100% Recycling of Waste
12.6.3 100% Recovery of Resources from Waste
References
13. Technology Integration for Zero Waste Production
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Integrated Approaches for Zero Waste
13.2.1 Agri- and Food Waste Valorization through the Production of Biochemicals and Packaging Materials
13.2.1.1 Food Waste-Based Biorefinery
13.2.1.2 Production of Bioenergy from Waste
13.2.1.2.1 Biodiesel Production
13.2.1.3 Production of Biodegradable Plastics
13.2.1.4 Production of Biopolymers from Waste
13.2.1.5 Bioprocesses for Bio-Lipids Synthesis
13.3 Enzyme Immobilization Technology
13.3.1 Carbohydrates
13.3.2 Polysaccharides
13.3.3 Lipids
13.3.4 Proteins
13.3.5 Bio-Based Chemicals
13.3.6 Sugars
13.3.7 Lignin
13.3.8 Acids
13.3.9 Polymer Substrates
13.4 Technology Integration for Zero Waste Generation from Pulp and Paper Industry
References
14. Recovery of Byproducts and Other Value-Added Products from Waste
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Bio-Based Products for Sustainable Bioeconomy
14.2.1 Chemicals
14.2.2 Minerals and Nutrients
14.2.3 Proteins and Enzymes
14.2.4 Vermiwash and Biofertilizers
14.2.5 Food and Microbial Protein
14.2.6 Biopesticides
14.2.7 Biosurfactants
14.2.8 Bioplastic and Biopolymers
14.2.8.1 Starch-Based Plastics
14.2.8.2 Cellulose-Based Plastics
14.2.8.3 Biodegradable Plastic from Petrochemical Sources
14.2.8.4 PHA Production from Waste Streams of Different Industries
14.2.9 Bioenergy
14.2.10 Biochar
References
Index