GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

Front-Matter_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geosciences
GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences
Copyright_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geosciences
Copyright
Contributors_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geosciences
Contributors
Foreword_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geosciences
Foreword
Chapter-1---Introduction-to-GPS-GNSS-te_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geos
1. Introduction to GPS/GNSS technology
1. Background
2. Major segments of GPS
3. Functioning of GPS
3.1 Pseudorange
3.2 Carrier-phase measurement
3.3 GPS broadcast message, ephemeris, and almanac
4. GPS errors
4.1 Satellite and receiver clock errors
4.2 Multipath error
4.3 Ionospheric delay
4.4 Tropospheric delay
4.5 GPS ephemeris errors
4.6 Other limitations
5. GPS technologies
6. Global Navigation Satellite System
6.1 NAVSTAR
6.2 GLONASS
6.3 Galileo
6.4 Compass/BeiDou
6.5 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
6.6 IRNSS/NavIC
7. Applications of GPS/GNSS
7.1 Navigation
7.2 Military services
7.3 Geodetic control surveys
7.4 Cadastral survey
7.5 Photogrammetry, remote sensing, and GIS
7.6 Ground truthing and validation
7.7 Disaster, response, and mitigation
7.8 Integration of GPS with mobile and google maps and GPS
8. Conclusions
References
Further reading
Chapter-2---Fundamentals-of-structural-and-func_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology
2. Fundamentals of structural and functional organization of GNSS
1. GNSS structural organization
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Some notation and definitions
1.3 GNSS global coverage
1.4 GNSS regional coverage
1.5 Three main GNSS segments
1.6 Navigation using one satellite
1.7 2D navigation using two satellites
1.8 2D navigation using three satellite
1.8.1 The main idea of an iterative algorithm to compensate for the systematic error Δρ
1.8.2 Inaccurate vehicle clock synchronization
1.9 3D GNSS using N satellites
1.10 Summary and conclusions on the topic structural organization of GNSS
2. GNSS functional organization
2.1 GNSS functional principle
2.1.1 Systems of coordinates
2.1.2 Time systems
2.1.3 Factors affecting accuracy
2.1.4 GNSS accuracy improvement
2.2 GNSS signal structure, encoding, and frequency
2.3 Pseudoranges
2.4 GNSS positioning
2.5 Differential GNSS architecture
2.5.1 Local Area Differential GNSS positioning
2.5.2 Regional Area Differential GNSS positioning
2.5.3 Wide Area Differential GNSS positioning
2.6 Summary and conclusions on the topic functional organization of GNSS
References
References additional
Chapter-3---Security-of-GNSS_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geosciences
3. Security of GNSS
1. Introduction
2. GNSS interference
3. GNSS jamming
4. GNSS self-jamming
5. GNSS meaconing
6. GNSS spoofing
6.1 The cloud-based GNSS positioning
7. The cloud-based GNSS spoofing detection
8. Some notation and definitions for detection of spoofing
8.1 Dual-antenna spoofing detector
8.2 Measuring the distance between antennas in normal navigation mode
8.3 Measurement the distance between antennas in spoofing mode
8.3.1 The decisive rule 1
8.4 Spoofing detection by the dispersion of the pseudorange difference of two antennas
8.4.1 The decisive rule 2
8.4.2 Discussion of the decisive rules
8.5 Single-antenna spoofing detector
8.6 Measuring the distance between two positions of single antenna in normal mode
8.7 Measurement of spacing between two positions of single antenna in spoofing mode
8.8 The decisive rule
9. GNSS spoofer DIY (Do It Yourself)
10. GNSS self-spoofing
11. Briefly about antispoofing
12. Summary and conclusions
13. Postscript
References
Chapter-4---GNSS-multipath-errors-and-mitig_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-
4. GNSS multipath errors and mitigation techniques
1. Introduction
2. Multipath errors and their characteristics
2.1 Code multipath error
2.2 Phase multipath error, SNR/CNR, and their relationship
2.2.1 Case 1: no (constructive) carrier-phase multipath effect
2.2.2 Case 2: maximum carrier-phase multipath effect
2.2.3 Case 3: no (destructive) carrier-phase multipath effect
2.3 Characteristics of multipath errors
3. Multipath mitigation techniques
3.1 Hardware-based multipath mitigation techniques
3.2 Software-based multipath mitigation techniques
3.2.1 Stochastic modeling
3.2.1.1 Elevation angle of satellite
3.2.1.2 Signal-to-noise ratio or carrier-to-noise ratio
3.2.2 Carrier-phase multipath reconstruction using the correlations of carrier-phase multipath with SNR
3.2.3 Sidereal day-to-day repeatability analysis
3.2.4 Antenna array
3.2.5 Ray tracing method
3.2.6 Comparison and discussion on software-based multipath mitigation techniques
4. Summary
References
Chapter-5---Antenna-technology-for-G_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geoscie
5. Antenna technology for GNSS
1. Introduction
1.1 Line-of-Sight and reflected signals
1.2 Circular polarization—mitigating the multipath
2. Key antenna parameters for GNSS receivers
2.1 Radiation pattern and antenna gain
2.2 Axial ratio
2.3 Performance versus cost
3. Antennas for GNSS
3.1 Microstrip patch antennas
3.2 Sequentially rotated arrays
3.3 3D antenna structures: quadrifilar helix and electromagnetic dipole
3.4 Omnidirectional GNSS antennas
3.5 Choke rings, EBG, and low-angle signals
4. Final remarks
References
Chapter-6---Probing-the-tropospheric-water-_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-
6. Probing the tropospheric water vapor using GPS
1. Introduction
1.1 Motivation for water vapor study
1.2 Navigation satellite system and GPS
2. GPS error sources
2.1 Atmospheric errors
3. Water vapor retrieval using GPS
3.1 Network GPS data processing
3.2 PPP GPS data processing
3.3 GPS datasets used for perceptible water vapor estimation
3.4 Computation of PWV from ZTD
3.5 Future scope and challenges
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter-7---Probing-the-upper-atmosphere_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geo
7. Probing the upper atmosphere using GPS
1. Introduction
1.1 Quiescent ionosphere
1.2 Geomagnetic storms
1.3 Equatorial spread-F
1.4 Solar eclipse
1.5 Earthquake
2. Conclusions
3. Recommendations
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter-8---Video-based-navigation-using-convo_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-
8. Video-based navigation using convolutional neural networks
1. Introduction
2. Proposed Super Navigation method
2.1 Navigation problem as an image classification problem
2.2 Collecting the data
2.3 Generating the Super Navigation image
2.3.1 Super Navigation image design option: number of frames
2.3.2 Super Navigation image design option: frame selection
2.4 Selecting the CNN model
2.5 Training the CNN model
2.6 Inferencing to predict the navigation direction
3. Implementation on low-power CNN accelerators
3.1 GnetFC model
4. Experimental results
4.1 Indoor navigation
4.1.1 Data collection and labeling
4.1.2 Generating Super Navigation images
4.1.3 Model training and accuracy comparison
4.2 Outdoor navigation
4.2.1 Data collection and labeling
4.2.2 Generating Super Navigation images
4.2.3 Model training and accuracy comparison
5. Conclusion and future work
References
Chapter-9---GNSS-monitoring-natural-and-anth_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in
9. GNSS monitoring natural and anthropogenic phenomena
1. Introduction
2. Earthquakes
3. Landslides monitoring
4. Crustal deformations
5. Challenges
6. Summary
References
Chapter-10---Environmental-sensing--a-review-of_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology
10. Environmental sensing: a review of approaches using GPS/GNSS
1. Introduction
2. Data collection
2.1 Smartphones as sensors
2.2 Specialized devices
3. Data organization/analysis
4. Data visualization
5. Applications
5.1 Water and soil monitoring/pollution
5.2 Air monitoring/pollution
5.3 Noise monitoring/pollution
6. Discussion and concluding remarks
References
Chapter-11---GNSS-derived-data-for-the-study_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in
11. GNSS-derived data for the study of the ionosphere
1. The ionosphere
2. Ionosphere monitoring
3. Ionosphere modeling
4. TEC from GNSS
5. GNSS TEC for ionosphere studies
6. Final remarks
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter-12---Automatic-pattern-recognition-and-GPS-_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Techno
12. Automatic pattern recognition and GPS/GNSS technology in marine digital terrain model
1. Introduction
2. Datasets description
3. Methodology implementation
4. The application of pattern recognition in marine pollution and structural studies
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter-13---Monitoring-ionospheric-scintillations-w_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Techn
13. Monitoring ionospheric scintillations with GNSS in South America: scope, results, and challenges
1. Introduction
1.1 Monitoring networks
2. Aspects of the climatology of ionospheric scintillations and their effects on GNSS-based applications in South America
2.1 Aspects of the climatology of scintillations in South America
2.1.1 Summary remarks of the climatology of scintillations in South America
2.2 Experimental setup to demonstrate effects of scintillations on field applications
3. Statistical modeling of amplitude scintillation
3.1 Discussions on application of statistical modeling of amplitude scintillation to mitigate effects of scintillations on GNSS ...
4. Low-cost instrumentation for ionospheric plasma bubbles monitoring
4.1 Experimental validation
4.2 Other initiatives for low-cost receiver design
5. Discussion
6. Final remarks & future outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter-14---The-versatility-of-GNSS-observatio_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology
14. The versatility of GNSS observations in hydrological studies
1. Introduction
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Study area
2.2 Datasets
2.2.1 GNSS datasets
2.2.2 Global Land Data Assimilation System
2.2.3 GRACE mascon solution
2.2.4 Global Precipitation Climatology Centre
2.3 Methodology
2.3.1 Hydrologic loading
2.3.2 GNSS-derived integrated water vapor
2.3.3 GNSS-based drought indicator
3. Results
3.1 Land water storage prediction using observed radial displacements
3.2 Droughts characterization using radial displacements
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions & future outlook
References
Chapter-15---High-precision-GNSS-for-agricu_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-
15. High-precision GNSS for agricultural operations
1. Introduction
1.1 GPS system
1.2 GLONASS system
1.3 Galileo system
1.4 BeiDou-Compass system
2. GPS signal and structure
3. GPS positioning principle
4. Carrier-phase measurement
5. Real-time differential GPS correction
6. Applications of high-precision GNSS in agriculture
6.1 GNSS in crop protection
6.1.1 GNSS use in weed/disease detection and mapping
6.1.2 GNSS for precision chemical crop protection tasks
6.1.3 GNSS in mechanical weed control
6.2 GNSS in variable rate application
6.2.1 Variable rate seeding and precision seeding with GNSS
6.2.2 GNSS in fertilization tasks
6.3 GNSS in monitoring soil, plant, and production
6.3.1 Soil characterization and monitoring
6.3.2 Plant monitoring
6.3.3 Yield monitoring
6.4 GNSS in agricultural UAV
6.5 GNSS in ground platforms and autonomous tractor
7. Conclusions and outlook
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter-16---An-evaluation-of-GPS-opportunity-in_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technolog
16. An evaluation of GPS opportunity in market for precision agriculture
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 GPS design and functioning
1.3 GPS applications
2. GPS applications in precision agriculture
2.1 Examples of GPS-based applications in agriculture
2.1.1 SMART farming
2.1.2 IoT-based smart farming
3. Challenges and future work
4. Conclusions and recommendations
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter-17---Use-of-GPS--remote-sensing-imagery--_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technolo
17. Use of GPS, remote sensing imagery, and GIS in soil organic carbon mapping
1. Introduction
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Study area and soil samples
2.2 Remotely sensed images and geographic data
3. Methodology
3.1 Soil properties model
4. Results
5. Discussion and conclusions
References
Chapter-18---GNSS-and-UAV-in-archeology--high-reso_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technol
18. GNSS and UAV in archeology: high-resolution mapping in Cephalonia Island, Greece
1. Introduction
2. Experimental setup
2.1 Study area
2.2 The archaeological background of Poros
3. Methodology
3.1 General overview
3.2 The experimental equipment
3.3 Flight planning—preprocessing
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
References
Chapter-19---Accuracy-and-precision-of-GNS_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-G
19. Accuracy and precision of GNSS in the field
1. Accuracy and precision of GNSS in the field
1.1 Key accuracy concepts in surveying
1.1.1 Key concepts
1.2 Choosing the right GNSS
1.2.1 Key concepts
1.3 Datums and projections
1.3.1 Key concepts
1.4 Environmental factors
1.4.1 Key concepts
2. Conducting a survey: some examples
2.1 Key concepts
2.1.1 Using recreational GNSS to locate data loggers
2.1.2 Surveying a river bed using dual-frequency DGNSS
2.1.2.1 Coastal landslide monitoring using PPK and NRTK methods
2.1.2.2 Mapping geomorphological change following hurricane Maria
2.2 Challenges to the GNSS user
2.2.1 Key concepts
2.2.1.1 Equipment access and service accessibility
2.2.1.2 Equipment usability and learning curve
3. Conclusions
References
Chapter-20---Application-of-GPS-and-GNSS-tech_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-i
20. Application of GPS and GNSS technology in geosciences
1. Introduction
2. Global navigation satellite system
2.1 Galileo
2.2 GLONASS
2.3 BieDou
3. Global Positioning System
3.1 History and development
3.1.1 Space segment
3.1.2 Control section
3.1.3 User segment
3.2 Operational principle of GPS
3.2.1 Basic principles
3.2.2 Navigation signals
3.3 GPS applications
3.3.1 Agriculture
3.3.2 Environment
3.3.3 Oceanography
3.3.4 Surveying and mapping
3.3.5 Rescue and relief projects
4. Discussion
5. Conclusion
References
Chapter-21---Future-pathway-for-research-and-eme_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technolog
21. Future pathway for research and emerging applications in GPS/GNSS
1. Introduction
2. Trends in GPS/GNSS technology, research, and applications
2.1 The trend from the communication point of view is given as follows
2.2 The trend from instrumentation and techniques point of view is given as follows
2.3 The trend from the hardware point of view is given as follows
2.4 The trend from the software point of view is given as follows
3. Vulnerabilities in existing technologies
4. Way forward
5. Concluding remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Index_2021_GPS-and-GNSS-Technology-in-Geosciences
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z