Good Reasoning Matters!: A Constructive Approach to Critical Thinking

Cover......Page 1
Copyright page......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
A Note to the Student......Page 13
A Note to the Instructor......Page 15
Acknowledgements......Page 19
1 Getting Started: Looking for an Argument......Page 21
1 Arguments......Page 22
2 An Example......Page 23
Exercise 1A......Page 24
3 Arguers, Audiences, and Opponents......Page 25
4 Simple and Extended Arguments......Page 29
Definitions......Page 30
Exercise 1B......Page 31
Logical Indicators......Page 33
Arguments without Indicator Words......Page 34
Borderline Cases......Page 36
Exercise 1C......Page 38
6 Arguments and Explanations......Page 40
Arguments within Explanations......Page 42
7 Argument Narratives......Page 44
Exercise 1D......Page 45
Major Exercise 1M......Page 47
1 Argument Diagrams......Page 53
Diagramming: A Shortcut Method......Page 57
2 Linked and Convergent Premises......Page 58
Some Examples......Page 60
3 Supplemented Diagrams......Page 62
Exercise 2A......Page 64
4 Diagramming Your Own Arguments......Page 66
Exercise 2B......Page 67
Major Exercise 2M......Page 68
3 Implicit Argument Components: Filling in the Blanks......Page 71
1 Speech Acts and the Principles of Communication......Page 72
Argument Dialogues......Page 75
2 Abbreviated Arguments......Page 76
Hidden Conclusions......Page 77
Hidden Premises......Page 80
Exercise 3B......Page 84
3 Non-verbal Elements in Argument......Page 85
Argument Flags......Page 86
Non-verbal Demonstrations......Page 87
Symbolic References......Page 90
Metaphors......Page 91
A Complex Example......Page 94
Four Kinds of Non-Verbal Meaning......Page 96
4 A Note on Argument Construction......Page 97
Major Exercise 3M......Page 98
4 Definitions: Saying What You Mean......Page 103
1 Using Words Precisely......Page 104
Euphemisms and Emotional Language......Page 105
Exercise 4A......Page 106
2 Vagueness and Ambiguity......Page 107
Equivocation and Verbal Disputes......Page 108
Exercise 4B......Page 111
3 Formulating Definitions......Page 113
Three Different Kinds of Definition......Page 115
4 Rules for Good Definitions......Page 117
Rule 3: The Rule of Clarity......Page 118
Constructing Good Definitions......Page 119
Exercise 4C......Page 120
5 Expressing Your Intended Meaning......Page 123
Major Exercise 4M......Page 124
1 Bias and Perspective......Page 129
Vested Interests......Page 132
Conflict of Interest......Page 134
2 Detecting Illegitimate Biases......Page 136
Slanting by Omission and Distortion......Page 137
Looking for Balance......Page 142
Difficult Cases......Page 143
Balancing Your Arguments......Page 145
Exercise 5B......Page 146
Major Exercise 5M......Page 147
6 Strong And Weak Arguments: Preparing for Evaluations......Page 153
1 Strong Arguments......Page 154
2 Argument Criticism......Page 157
Burden of Proof......Page 158
4 Valid and Invalid Arguments......Page 159
Relevance and Sufficiency......Page 160
Exercise 6A......Page 162
5 Argument Schemes......Page 164
6 Invalid Arguments......Page 167
Parallel Cases......Page 168
Major Exercise 6M......Page 170
7 Syllogisms I: Classifying Arguments......Page 176
1 Categorical Statements......Page 177
Pure Forms......Page 178
PA (Particular Affirmative)......Page 179
Recognizing Pure Forms......Page 180
Exercise 7A......Page 181
2 Immediate Inferences......Page 182
Obversion......Page 183
Conversion......Page 184
Contraposition......Page 185
3 Categorical Syllogisms......Page 186
Preparing Syllogisms for Testing......Page 187
Exercise 7C......Page 189
4 Venn Diagrams......Page 190
Major Exercise 7M......Page 200
1 Full Schematization......Page 205
Distribution......Page 206
Rule 2: Any term distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the premise in which it occurs......Page 207
3 Applying the Rules......Page 208
A Further Consideration......Page 209
4 Procedural Points......Page 210
Major Exercise 8M......Page 212
9 Propositional Logic I: Some Ifs, Ands, and Buts......Page 215
1 Simple and Complex Propositions......Page 216
Negations......Page 217
Conjunctions......Page 218
Disjunctions......Page 220
Conditionals......Page 221
Exercise 9A......Page 223
2 Translation......Page 224
5. Treat biconditionals as conjunctions with conditional conjuncts......Page 225
8. Translate logical connectors literally if you can......Page 226
Translating Arguments......Page 227
Exercise 9B......Page 228
3 Propositional Schemes and Proofs......Page 230
Conjunctions......Page 231
Disjunctions......Page 232
Conditionals......Page 234
Biconditionals......Page 236
Conditional Series......Page 237
2. Base your strategy on an argument's premises or conclusion......Page 238
Exercise 9C......Page 239
Major Exercise 9M......Page 242
1 Conditional Proofs......Page 246
2 Reductio ad Absurdum......Page 249
3 Dilemmas......Page 252
Unacceptable Disjunctions and Dilemmas......Page 254
Exercise 10C......Page 256
4 De Morgan's Laws......Page 257
5 Summary: Rules of Inference......Page 258
Major Exercise 10M......Page 259
11 Ordinary Reasoning: Assessing the Basics......Page 267
1 Ordinary Reasoning......Page 268
2 Acceptability......Page 270
Belief Systems and Acceptability......Page 272
Belief Systems and Audiences......Page 275
ii) Acceptable as a factual statement reporting an observation or as a statement of personal testimony......Page 277
iii) Acceptable by common knowledge......Page 278
iv) Acceptable due to its being defended in a reasonable sub-argument......Page 279
v) Acceptable on the authority of an expert......Page 280
i) Unacceptable due to an inconsistency with another premise......Page 281
ii) Unacceptable due to begging the question......Page 282
Exercise 11A......Page 283
3 Relevance......Page 285
Internal Relevance......Page 286
Contextual Relevance......Page 288
Straw arguments......Page 289
Red herrings......Page 290
Internal and Contextual Relevance......Page 291
Exercise 11B......Page 292
1. Assess the sufficiency of evidence in relation to how strongly the conclusion has been expressed......Page 294
2. Do not draw a conclusion too hastily......Page 295
3. Ensure that the arguer has provided a balanced case and discharged all her or his obligations......Page 296
Exercise 11C......Page 297
5 Applying the Criteria......Page 298
Major Exercise 11M......Page 301
12 Empirical Schemes Of Argument: Nothing but the Facts......Page 306
1 Generalizations......Page 307
Sample Size......Page 309
Sample Bias......Page 310
Criteria for Good Generalizations......Page 311
Counter-Arguments against Generalizations......Page 312
Exercise 12A......Page 313
2 Polling......Page 314
Sampling Errors......Page 316
Measurement Errors......Page 318
Counter-Arguments to Polls......Page 319
Exercise 12B......Page 320
3 Causal Reasoning......Page 322
General Causal Reasoning......Page 323
Particular Causal Reasoning......Page 328
Exercise 12C......Page 331
4 Appeals to Ignorance......Page 333
Appeals to Ignorance......Page 334
The Role of Hypotheses......Page 335
4. Testing the hypothesis......Page 336
5. Evaluating the hypothesis......Page 337
Evaluating Scientific Claims......Page 339
3. Is there evidence of agreement among different scientists?......Page 340
Exercise 12E......Page 341
Major Exercise 12M......Page 342
13 Moral And Political Reasoning: Schemes of Value......Page 349
1 Slippery-Slope Arguments......Page 350
Exercise 13A......Page 354
2 Arguments from Analogy......Page 355
Counter-Arguments to Analogy......Page 358
Exercise 13B......Page 360
3 Appeals to Precedent......Page 362
Exercise 13C......Page 364
4 Two-Wrongs Reasoning......Page 365
Two-Wrongs by Analogy......Page 369
Two-Wrongs Reasoning by Analogy......Page 371
2. Strong two-wrongs reasoning requires 'proportionality'......Page 372
Exercise 13D......Page 373
Major Exercise 13M......Page 374
14 Ethotic Schemes: Judging Character......Page 379
1 Pro Homine......Page 380
Pro Homine Reasoning......Page 381
2 Ad Populum Arguments......Page 382
Exercise 14B......Page 383
3 Arguments from Authority......Page 384
3. Appeals to authorities who are not biased......Page 386
5. Must appeal to an authority who belongs to an area of knowledge where a consensus among authorities is in principle possible because there are universally accepted criteria for making judgments in that field......Page 387
4 Ad Hominem......Page 389
5 Arguments against Authority......Page 392
6 Guilt (and Honour) by Association......Page 394
Exercise 14F......Page 397
7 Other Cases......Page 398
Major Exercise 14M......Page 400
15 Argumentative Writing: Essaying an Argument......Page 407
(2) Macro-Structure and Micro-Structure......Page 408
(4) Reasoning......Page 409
(6) Response......Page 410
Exercise 15A......Page 411
(1) Scope......Page 415
(2) Clarity......Page 416
(3) Structure......Page 417
(5) Objectivity......Page 418
Exercise 15B......Page 419
3 A Student's Paper......Page 420
Structure......Page 421
Language......Page 423
Reasoning......Page 424
Strengths and Weaknesses......Page 426
Revision......Page 427
4 Conclusion......Page 429
Major Exercise 15 M......Page 430
Exercise 1B......Page 431
Exercise 1D......Page 432
Major Exercise 1M......Page 433
Exercise 2A......Page 434
Exercise 2B......Page 436
Major Exercise 2M......Page 437
Exercise 3B......Page 439
Major Exercise 3M......Page 440
Exercise 4B......Page 441
Exercise 4C......Page 442
Major Exercise 4M......Page 443
Major Exercise 5M......Page 446
Exercise 6A......Page 448
Major Exercise 6M......Page 449
Exercise 7A......Page 453
Major Exercise 7M......Page 454
Major Exercise 8M......Page 458
Exercise 9A......Page 460
Exercise 9B......Page 461
Major Exercise 9M......Page 462
Major Exercise 10M......Page 465
Exercise 11A......Page 469
Exercise 11C......Page 470
Major Exercise 11M......Page 471
Exercise 12A......Page 474
Exercise 12B......Page 475
Exercise 12D......Page 476
Major Exercise 12M......Page 477
Exercise 13A......Page 478
Exercise 13B......Page 479
Exercise 13D......Page 480
Major Exercise 13M......Page 481
Exercise 14A......Page 482
Major Exercise 14M......Page 483
Index......Page 487