Goddesses of Akragas: A Study of Terracotta Votive Figurines from Sicily

The terracotta figurines from Akragas (Agrigento) with their chubby faces, splendid furniture, and rich adornments, depict a prosperous life in the late sixth and early fifth century BCE. The extensive jewelry on the figurines contains strikingly large fibulae appliqués fastening pectoral chains with several sorts of pendants. They are modeled after existing items. The form of the jewelry items changed fast, influenced by different peoples and changing fashions, which can be compared with representations of jewelry and fashion on coins of the same period from Syracuse. In contrast, the body of the figurines remained armless and abstract for some time, nor does it express its gender. The block shaped, sloping upper body might have originated with aniconic objects, but suggests here a seated person, covered with a rectangular apron on the front. In contrast, the face is detailed, and often crowned with a specific headgear, the polos. The Archaic smile reveals Greek influence on its features. An archaeological experiment in which figurines and molds were reproduced revealed their production process. By combining data from the experiment with an analysis of their iconographic features, most of the figurines studied can be shown to have been designed and produced locally. The molding technique, introduced by newcomers to the city, provided for relatively cheap and rapid production of terracotta figurines. Local clay and marl are found near to the city, and its composition was found to be very suitable, due to its plasticity, fine structure and soft tone on firing. Wooden figurines, the forerunners of the terracotta figurines, were used in the production of the molds of their terracotta successors. The terracotta figurines developed to become more three-dimensional, so that they were able to stay upright unsupported. Objects and molds were exchanged with the city of Selinous, resulting in variations of the standard and figurines with finely detailed faces. Designing and dedicating these votive figurines, and possibly also jewelry, to a cult statue might have acted as a unifying element for the perhaps multi-ethnic society of Akragas. By means of these anthropomorphic female figurines, people gave shape to their origin and narratives, using old and new symbols such as the Phoenician crescent and the Greek satyr. Their cultural influences formed a new religious setting, helping to forge a new identity unique to Sicily. The prosperity expressed by these metal adornments, fits Diodorus Siculus’ description of Akragas as a rich city. Table of Contents List of figures with references I Akragantine figurines and their context I.1 Introduction I.2 State of research I.2.a Identifying the figurine and the dedicants I.2.b Proving literature right by the archaeological material I.2.b.i Cult transfer and a prototype reconstruction I.2.c Athena Lindia? Rhodian and Sicilian figurines compared I.2.d Other views on identification and origin I.2.e Oikist cult and cultural identity formation I.2.f Intermarriage and gender I.3 Aims and research questions I.4 Method and archaeological theory I.5 Research structure I.6 Greek historiography on Sicily – some general remarks I.6.a Mythical past I.6.b Political setting I.6.b.i The perception of ancient authors I.6.b.ii Sicily in the account of Thucydides I.6.b.iii The foundation of Gelas and Akragas I.6.b.iii.1 Gelas I.6.b.iii.2 Herodotus on Gelas I.6.b.iii.3 Akragas I.6.b.iii.4 Herodotus on Theron of Akragas I.6.c Social and economic setting I.6.c.i Diversity among the inhabitants of Sicily I.6.c.ii Phoenicians I.6.c.iii Prosperity of Akragas I.6.d Religious setting I.6.d.i Demeter and Persephone on Sicily I.6.d.ii Temple building and politics I.6.e Conclusions on the ancient literary sources II Iconography of the figurines II.1 Introduction II.2 Aims II.3 Method II.4 The body II.4.a The local tradition I.4.a.i Arms and feet II.4.b Imported and imitated images II.4.c Upright II.4.d From wood to terracotta II.4.e An aniconic tradition II.4.f Gender II.4.g Practical implications of the figurines’ form II.4.h The form of the figurines and their role as votives II.5 Head and face II.5.a General shape and expression of the face II.5.b A personal expression II.5.c Cultural influences II.5.c.i Noses II.5.c.ii Mouth and chin II.5.c.iii Eyes II.5.c.iv Ears II.5.c.v Hair II.5.d Gender II.6 Dress and personal adornment II.6.a The apron II.6.b Non-Sicilian garments II.6.b.i The undergarment II.6.c Cultic dress II.6.d Footwear II.6.e Headgear II.6.e.i Veil II.6.e.ii Polos II.6.e.iii The meaning of the polos and veil II.6.e.iii The headdress as an indication of marital status II.6.f Fibulae II.6.f.i Interpretation and comparison with real-life objects II.6.g Pectoral bands and pendants II.6.g.i Akragantine pendants II.6.h.ii Linked to the locals: pectoral bands II.6.h.iii Discs and crescents II.6.h.iv Figurative pendants II.6.h.v Other beads and pendants with their real-life counterparts from other sites II.6.h.vi Comparison with other cultures II.6.h.vii Cultural exchange II.6.h.viii Function and meaning II.6.h Other jewelry II.6.h.i Ear studs and earrings II.6.h.ii Bracelets II.6.h.iii Necklaces and hairbands II.6.h.iv Comparison with korai jewellery II.6.i Gender, identity and the display of wealth II.7 Furniture II.7.a From bench to throne II.7.a.i The footstool II.7.b The origin of the represented chair shapes II.7.b.i Greek chairs: thronos and klismos II.7.b.ii Thrones and lions II.7.b.iii An enthroned couple II.7.c Gender and identity II.8 Conclusions III The technology of Akragantine figurines III.1 Introduction III.2 Aims of technical research III.3 Method: An archaeological experiment with analogue reconstruction III.4 Interpretation and the chaîne opératoire approach III.5 The general production process III.5.a Object categories III.5.b Solid objects and plaques III.5.c Description of the steps in the production process III.6 The coroplastic experiment III.7 Results of the experiment and comparison with features of the original objects III.7.a Step 1: The clays used in Akragas III.7.b Steps 2 and 3: Choice of patrix and creating the matrix III.7.c Step 4: Aspects of the shaping process and related items III.7.c.i Making the front of the figurine III.7.c.ii Making the back of the figurine III.7.c.iii Making an extra rim III.7.c.iv Drying and deformation III.7.c.v The derivative mold III.7.c.vi Time management and additions III.7.c.vii Retouching and tools III.8 The production of other types of objects III.9 Interpretation and discussion III.9.a Implications of the introduction of the molding technique III.10 Identification of coroplastic workshops by different techniques III.10.a The Workshop of the White Clay III.10.b The Workshop of the Convex Back III.10.c The Workshop of Straight Reworking III.10.d The Workshop of the Chubby Faces and the One Pendant Necklace III.10.e The skills of the coroplast III.11 The coroplastic exchange between Sicilian towns III.11.a Terracotta production at the kerameikos of Selinous and workshops in Akragas III.12 Conclusions IV Technically and iconographically defined typology Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Chronological overview of the groups V Conclusion V.1 Concerning literary sources V.2 Concerning iconography V.3 Concerning production techniques V.4 Concerning meaning and use Bibliography Catalogue How to use the catalogue Overview of the locations and contexts of findspots for figurines Abbreviations/references for museum collections with figurines from Akragas Type A: Argive Type (no.1‑2) Type B: Face-molded figurines (no.3‑7) Type C: block-like figurines (no.8‑64) Type D: Some characteristic faces and standing figurines (65‑70) Type E: Imported figurines with rounded shapes, and objects inspired by them (71‑76) Type F: Exceptional objects (77‑86) Type G: Standing group (87‑97) Type H: A variety of pendants (98‑106) Type I: The same head, a different body (107‑114) Type J: A patterned polos (115‑137) Type K: The outlined-throne throne group and some similar figurines (no.138‑153) Type L: other polos-wearing heads (154‑170) Type M: The chubby face (171‑184) Type N: A new hairstyle and widened polos (185‑197) Type O: Seated on the left shoulder (198‑200) Type P: Earrings (201‑202)