Global Degradation of Soil and Water Resources: Regional Assessment and Strategies

Preface
Contents
Book_CON_Heading
Introduction—Overview of Global Soil and Water Stress
Introduction of the First Authors
1 Probabilistic Land Use Allocation in the Global Soil Erosion Modelling
Abstract
References
2 Soil Erosion and Its Impacts on Greenhouse Gases
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Climate Change and the Soil Erosion Risks
2.3 Fate of Carbon Transported by Erosional Processes
2.4 Burial of Sediment-Laden SOC
2.5 Erosion-Induced Gaseous Emissions
2.6 Forms of Soil Organic Carbon and Decomposition During Erosion
2.7 Wind Erosion and CO2 Emissions
2.8 Implications to Carbon Budgeting and Modelling
2.9 Conclusion
References
3 Assessing Multiple, Concurrent and Interactive Land and Soil Degradation Processes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 How Scarce are Productive Land Resources
3.3 Common Forms of Degradation
3.4 Soil Degradation Lies at the Core of Land Degradation
3.5 Concurrent, Overlapping and Interactive Degradation Processes
3.6 Documentation of Concurrent, Interactive Degradation Processes
3.7 Illustrative Case Studies
3.7.1 Multiple Impacts of Land Clearing
3.7.2 Soil Erodibility-Salinity-Sodicity Interactions
3.7.3 Multiple Impacts of Soil Erosion
3.8 Challenges and Strategies for Assessing Multiple and Interactive Degradation Processes and Impacts
3.9 Important Steps
3.10 Summary
References
African Region
Introduction of the First Authors
4 Agricultural Soil and Water Conservation Issues in East Africa
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Characteristics of East African Region
4.2.1 Climate and Agro-Ecological Zones
4.2.2 Soil Type Diversity and Agricultural Particularities
4.2.3 Agricultural Water Resource Status
4.3 Agricultural Soil Management Issues in East Africa
4.3.1 Soil Threats and Land Degradateion
4.3.2 Salinization and Desertification
4.3.3 Social Barriers and Demographic Constraints
4.4 Agricultural Water Management Issues in East Africa
4.4.1 Impact of Climate Change on Temporal and Spatial Rainfall Distribution
4.4.2 Dry Spell and Droughts
4.4.3 Water Limit and Irrigation Infrast-Ructure Deficiency
4.5 Agricultural Soil and Water Conservation in East Africa
4.5.1 Initiatives in Soil Fertility Management
4.5.2 Existence of Alternative Agronomic Practices
4.5.3 Improvement of Agricultural Irrigation Infrastructures
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Institutional and Technical Efforts for the Soil and Water Conservation in North Africa
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Institutional Efforts of SWC in North Africa
5.3 Soil Erosion in North Africa
5.3.1 Water Erosion
5.3.2 Wind Erosion
5.4 Soil Conservation Methods Against Water Erosion
5.4.1 Reforestation
5.4.2 Agronomic Practices
5.4.3 Mechanical Structures
5.4.4 Gully Erosion Control
5.5 Integrated Watershed Management: A New Approach
5.6 Technics of Wind Erosion Control
5.7 Conclusions
References
6 Sustainable Use of Soil and Water Resources to Combat Degradation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Water Resources in Egypt
6.3 Land and Soil Resources
6.4 The Nile Valley and Delta Zone (About 33,000 km2)
6.5 North Coastal Zone
6.6 Inland Sinai and Eastern Desert Zone
6.7 The Western Desert Zone (About 671,000 km2)
6.8 Agro-Ecological Zones of Egypt
6.9 Old Land
6.10 New Land
6.11 Rain Fed Areas
6.12 Major Pressures on Land Resources in Egypt
6.13 Urbanization
6.14 Soil Salinity and Water Logging
6.15 Soil Fertility Depletion
6.16 Pollution
6.17 Land Physical Degradation
6.18 Soil Erosion
6.19 Sand Dunes
6.20 Cost Assessment of Land Degradation
6.21 Egypt Efforts to Combat Land Degradation
6.22 First Trend
6.23 Second Trend
6.24 Legislations
References
American Region
Introduction of the First Authors
7 Long-Term Effects of Different Agricultural Soil Use and Management Systems on Soil Degradation in Uruguay
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Model Estimations of Soil Erosion and SOC Content
7.3 Experimental Results on Rotations and Tillage Systems Previously Reviewed
7.4 Review of Information After 2004
7.4.1 “Old Rotations” Experiment in Exp. Station INIA-La Estanzuela
7.4.2 Forage Production Rotations in Exp. Unit INIA-Palo a Pique
7.4.3 Rotations and Tillage Intensity Interaction Experiment in Exp. Station EEMAC-Fac. Of Agronomy, Udelar
7.5 Crop Productivity Under Different Soil Use and Management Systems
7.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
8 Assessment of the Utility of the Diffusion Model for Facilitating Adoption of Soil and Water Conservation Production Systems in North America
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Organization of Chapter
8.3 The Diffusion Theoretical Perspective
8.4 Application of the Diffusion Model
8.5 Theoretical Perspectives Guiding Recent Research
8.6 Discussion
8.7 Conclusions
References
9 Eight Decades of USDA Soil and Water Conservation Policies and Programs
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Historical Trends in Soil and Water Conservation Policy: Voluntary Incentive Approaches
9.3 A Shift in Conservation Policy: Disincentives
9.4 Future Considerations and Policy Implications
9.4.1 Centralized Policy Approaches
9.4.2 Decentralized Policy Approaches
9.4.3 Hybrid Policy Approaches
9.5 Conclusions
References
10 Market Approaches for Addressing Soil and Water Resources Problems
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Agriculture is a Source of Ecosystem Services
10.3 Markets for Ecosystem Services
10.3.1 Emissions Trading Markets
10.3.2 Linked Markets
10.4 Lessons Learned
10.4.1 Issue: Performance of Management Practices
10.4.2 Issue: Quality Assurance (Standards and Certification)
10.4.3 Issue: Additionality
10.4.4 Issue: Cost of Information
10.4.5 Issue: Bringing Together Buyers and Sellers
10.4.6 Issue: Coordinating Conservation Programs with Markets
10.5 Market-Like Mechanisms
10.6 Conclusions
References
11 Desertification in Argentina: The Causes and Effects on Human Beings
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Methodology Used for Land Degradation Assessment in Argentina
11.2.1 The Steps of the Assessment Used at the National Level Were as Follows
11.2.2 Characterization of the Study Areas
11.2.3 Land Use Units
11.2.4 Soil, Vegetation and Water Resource Degradation
11.2.5 Working Frameworks: Driving Forces, Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses (DPSIR), Ecosystem Services (ES) and Sustainable Livelihoods (Fig. 11.10)
11.3 Results and Discussion
11.4 Conclusions
References
Asian Region
Introduction of the First Authors
12 Characterization of Soil and Water Resources in Yemen
12.1 General Background of Yemen Socio-economic Development
12.2 Geographic Sitting
12.2.1 Location, Population and General Topographic Features
12.2.2 Physiographic Regions
12.2.3 Geology
12.2.4 Climate
12.2.5 Vegetation Cover and Plant Species
12.3 Soil Resources
12.3.1 Introduction
12.3.2 History and Status of Soil Survey Programs in Yemen
12.3.3 The Updating National Soil Map
12.3.4 Soil Parent Material
12.3.5 Soil Properties
12.3.6 Soil Classification
12.4 Land Degradation
12.5 Agricultural Land Use
12.6 Water Resources
12.6.1 Surface Water
12.6.2 Groundwater
12.6.3 Causes of the Water Crisis
References
13 Soil Erosion Environment Background and Its Spatial Distribution in China
13.1 Environment Background of Soil Erosion in China
13.1.1 Landform and Soil Erosion in China
13.1.2 Climate and Soil Erosion in China
13.1.3 Soil Environment and Soil Erosion in China
13.1.4 Vegetation and Soil Erosion in China
13.1.5 Impacts of Human Activities on Soil Erosion in China
13.2 Spatial Distribution of Soil Erosion in China
13.2.1 Eastern Soil Erosion Region by Water (I)
13.2.2 Northwestern Soil Erosion Region by Wind (II)
13.2.3 Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Soil Erosion Region by Freeze–thaw (III)
References
14 Water Erosion and Its Control in China
14.1 Changes in Water Erosion
14.1.1 Soil Erosion Surveys in China
14.1.2 Current Status of Water Erosion
14.1.3 Changes in Water Erosion Since the 1990s
14.2 Water Erosion Control
14.2.1 Soil and Water Conservation Measures in China
14.2.2 Soil Conservation Measures in Provinces
14.3 Water Erosion and Its Control Across Regions
14.3.1 Black Soil Region of Northeastern China
14.3.2 Earth-Rocky Mountain Region of Northern China
14.3.3 Loess Plateau in Northwestern China
14.3.4 Red Soil Region of Southern China
14.3.5 Purple Soil Region of Southwestern China
14.3.6 Karst Region of Southwestern China
References
15 Aeolian Desertification Status and Its Control in China
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Aeolian Desertification Category
15.2.1 Index and System of Aeolian Desertification Category
15.2.2 Synthetic Indicator System of Aeolian Desertification Monitoring by Remote Sensing
15.3 Range and Types of Aeolian Desertification in China
15.4 The Spatial Characteristics of Aeolian Desertification in China
15.4.1 Regional Differences
15.4.2 Spatial Distribution
15.5 The Temporal Characteristics of Aeolian Desertification in China
15.5.1 Temporal Distribution
15.5.2 Temporal Change
15.6 Measures to Control Aeolian Desertification
15.6.1 Vegetative Method
15.6.2 Mechanical Method
15.6.3 Chemical Method
15.6.4 Combination of Different Measures
15.7 Rehabilitation Patterns of Aeolian Desertification Lands in China
15.7.1 Rehabilitation Pattern in Semi-Arid Region
15.7.2 Rehabilitation Pattern in Arid Region
15.8 Summary
References
16 The Landslide/Debris Flow and Control Technology in China
16.1 Distribution Law and Characters of Landslide/Debris Flow in China
16.1.1 Mountain Hazards in China
16.1.2 Distribution of Landslides and Debris Flows
16.2 Formation Condition and Mechanism
16.2.1 Formation Condition of Hazards
16.2.2 Formation Mechanism
16.3 Disaster Prevention
16.3.1 Monitoring and Early Warning System on Landslide and Debris Flow
16.3.2 Engineering Countermeasures of Landslide and Debris Flow
References
17 Soil and Water Conservation Policies Change in the Yellow River Basin, China
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Yellow River Basin (YRB)
17.2.1 General Condition
17.2.2 Soil Erosion and Sediment Load
17.3 Law and Policy on Soil and Water Conservation
17.3.1 Law and Policy on Soil and Water Conservation
17.3.2 The Stages of Policy
17.4 The Policy Evolution in Each Stage Through a DPSIR Framework
17.4.1 DPSIR Framework
17.4.2 Data for Policy Change Analysis
17.4.3 The Change of Policy With DPSIR Framework
17.4.4 Policy Responses in Different Stages
17.5 Achievements and Perspectives of Soil and Water Conservation in YRB
17.5.1 Impacts of Soil and Water Conservation
17.5.2 Perspectives of Soil and Water Conservation in YRB
References
18 Degradation Hazards and Conservation Approaches for Hillslope Farming in Taiwan, China
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 The Setting and Environment
18.1.2 Soil and Water Conservation Challenges
18.2 Hillslope Utilization Management and Policies
18.2.1 Slopeland Capability Classification Strategy
18.2.2 Appropriate Soil and Water Conservation Practices
18.3 Integrated Watershed Conservation and Restoration
18.4 Rural Villages Rejuvenation
18.4.1 Motivating Local People
18.4.2 Successful Case Studies
18.5 Future Vision
References
19 Soil Conservation Practices and Efforts Made to Combat Desertification in the United Arab Emirates
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Moisture and Temperature Regimes of the Emirate Soils
19.2.1 Aridic and Torric (L. Aridus, Dry, and L. Torridus, Hot and Dry) Soil Moisture Regimes
19.2.2 Hyperthermic is the Soil Temperature Regime
19.3 Importance of Soils
19.4 Soils of the United Arab Emirates
19.4.1 Aquisalids
19.4.2 Calcigypsids
19.4.3 Haplocalcids
19.4.4 Haplocambids
19.4.5 Haplogypsids
19.4.6 Haplosalids
19.4.7 Petrocalcids
19.4.8 Petrogypsids
19.4.9 Torriorthents
19.4.10 Torripsamments
19.5 Indicators of Land Degradation and Desertification
19.6 Evaluation of Soil Movement Mechanisms Through Particle Size Analyses
19.7 The Major Causes of Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation Practices
19.7.1 Coastal Protection Efforts Through Mangrove Establishment
19.7.2 Land Degradation and United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
19.7.3 United Arab Emirates Efforts to Comply UNCCD
19.8 Conclusions and Recommendations
Acknowledgements
References
20 Land Degradation in Iran
20.1 An Introduction to General Situation of Iran
20.2 Nature of Main Soil and Water Resources Issues in Iran
20.2.1 Erosion and Sediment-Related Issues
20.2.2 Water Issues
20.2.3 Land Use Change
20.2.4 Overgrazing
20.2.5 Soil Salinity
20.2.6 Forest Fire
20.2.7 Flooding
20.2.8 Wetland Loss
20.3 Magnitude of Main Soil and Water Resources Issues in Iran
20.3.1 Magnitude of Erosion and Sediment-Related Issues
20.3.2 Magnitude of Water Issues
20.3.3 Magnitude of Land Use Change
20.3.4 Magnitude of Overgrazing
20.3.5 Magnitude of Soil Salinity
20.3.6 Magnitude of Forest Fire
20.3.7 Magnitude of Flooding
20.3.8 Magnitude of Wetland Loss
20.4 Hot Spots of Land Degradation in Iran
20.5 Environmental Impacts of Land Degradation in Iran
20.5.1 Environmental Impacts of Erosion and Sediment-Related Issues
20.5.2 Environmental Impacts of Water Issues
20.5.3 Environmental Impacts of Land Use Change
20.5.4 Environmental Impacts of Overgrazing
20.5.5 Environmental Impacts of Soil Salinity
20.5.6 Environmental Impacts of Forest Fire
20.5.7 Environmental Impacts of Flooding
20.5.8 Environmental Impacts of Wetland Loss
20.6 Conservation Efforts to Control Land Degradation in Iran
References
European Region
Introduction of the First Authors
21 Soil Erosion in Europe: From Policy Developments to Models, Indicators and New Research Challenges
21.1 Introduction
21.2 European Policy Context
21.3 Methodology and Model Description
21.4 Results
21.4.1 Spatial and Temporal Analysis of the Soil Erosion 2016 Assessment
21.4.2 Assessment in Agricultural Lands and Soil Erosion Indicator
21.5 Scenario Analysis: The Effect of Land Use Change and Climate Change
21.6 Erosion Integration with Sediment Transport
21.7 Erosion Integration with Soil Organic Carbon
21.8 Global Assessment of Soil Erosion
21.9 Concluding Remarks
References
22 Soil Protection Policies in the European Union
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Background
22.2.1 Environmental Policy Making in Europe
22.2.2 Legislating on Soil Protection in Europe
22.3 EU Policies for Soil Protection
22.3.1 Overarching Policies
22.3.2 Agriculture and Forestry
22.3.3 Industrial (Point Source) Contamination of Land
22.3.4 Diffuse Pollution and Water Management
22.3.5 Nature Protection, Land Use Planning and Soil Sealing
22.3.6 Climate and Energy Policy
22.4 Conclusion
References
23 Soil Conservation Programmes and Policies in England and Wales
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Soil Degradation Issues in England and Wales
23.2.1 Processes Involved
23.2.2 Impacts of Soil Degradation on Soil Functions and the Delivery of Ecosystem Goods and Services
23.3 Programmes and Policies to Manage Soil Degradation in England and Wales
23.3.1 Policy Background
23.3.2 Policy Instruments For Soil Conservation
23.3.3 Codes of Practice Related to Soil Conservation
23.3.4 Certification Schemes Referring to Soil Conservation
23.4 Discussion and Analysis
23.5 Conclusions
References
24 Integrating Soil, Water and Biodiversity Policies: A Case Study from Scotland
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Theoretical Background
24.2.1 The Meaning of Policy, Integration and Environmental Management
24.2.2 Analytical Framework for Policy Integration
24.3 Methods and Materials
24.3.1 Environmental Policy in Scotland
24.3.2 Methodology
24.4 Results
24.4.1 References to Soil, Water and Biodiversity Objectives
24.4.2 Objectives and Types of Policy Instruments for Soil, Water and Biodiversity
24.4.3 Conceptual, Operational and Implementation Integration
24.5 Discussion and Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Appendix A
Appendix B
References
25 Soil Erosion and Flooding in Bulgaria-Risk Assessment and Prevention Measures
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Background
25.2.1 Soil Erosion
25.2.2 Floods
25.3 Material and Methods
25.3.1 Soil Erosion
25.3.2 Floods
25.4 Results and Discussion
25.4.1 Soil Erosion
25.4.2 Floods
25.5 Conclusion
References
26 Natural and Socio-Economic Effects of Erosion and Its Control in Serbia
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Natural Factors of Erosion Processes and Torrential Floods
26.3 Socio-Economic Aspects of Erosion Processes and Torrential Floods
26.3.1 Population Growth in Serbia and Worldwide
26.3.2 Migrations
26.3.3 Migrations in Serbia
26.3.4 Anthropogenic Factors of Torrential Floods and Erosion Processes
26.3.5 Serbian Contribution to the WOCAT: Cooperation Between People and Porečje Company in the Region of the Mt. Kukavica
26.4 Sustainable Management of Land Resources-Prevention of Torrential Floods and Erosion Processes
26.4.1 Participation of the Community in the Natural Resources Management —Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM)
26.4.2 Production Model from the Aspect of Land Resources Protection
26.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
27 Erosion Control and Torrential Flood Management by Checking Dam Construction in Serbia
27.1 Introduction
27.2 History of the Check Dam and Torrent Mitigation Strategy in Europe
27.3 Construction of Check Dams in Serbia
27.4 The Structural Analysis of the Check Dam Designs
27.5 Effects of Classical Check Dams
27.6 New (Modern) Check Dams
27.6.1 Deposit (Settling Basin) Check Dam by Prof. Rosić
27.6.2 Construction of Check Dams for Bed Load Management
27.7 Recommendation for Check Dam Construction in Serbia
27.8 Conclusion
References
28 Soil Erosion and Torrent Control in Western Balkan Countries
28.1 Introduction and Background
28.2 Aims, Objectives and Methodology
28.3 Factors that Contribute to Erosion and Torrents in the WBC
28.3.1 Relief and Hydrography
28.3.2 Climate
28.3.3 Land Cover/Use
28.4 Erosion and Torrents in the Western Balkan Countries
28.4.1 Erosion in WBC
28.4.2 Torrents and Torrent Floods in the WBC
28.5 Erosion and Torrent Control in the Western Balkan Countries
28.5.1 Erosion and Torrent Control Per Country
28.5.2 Comparison of Erosion and Torrent Control Works Between Countries
28.6 Conclusion
References
29 Identification of Soil Resources Problems in European Russia
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Soil Erosion on the Agricultural Lands the European Russia
29.2.1 History of Agriculture and Water Soil Erosion on European Part of Russia
29.2.2 The Contemporary Sheet and Rill Erosion in the European Russia
29.2.3 Gully Erosion in the European Russia
29.2.4 Transformation of Land Use After the USSR Collapse
29.3 The Desertification Issue in Russia: Main Drivers and Tendencies
29.3.1 Peculiarities of Desertification Assessment in Russian Federation
29.3.2 Desertification Mapping
29.3.3 Causes and Trends in Land Degradation
29.3.4 Social and Economic Consequences of Desertification
29.3.5 Zoning of Desertification
29.4 Soil Pollution
29.4.1 Chemical and Biological Soil Pollution
29.4.2 Radioactive Soil Pollution
29.5 Concluding Remarks
References
30 Soil Erosion on the Agricultural Lands of the Asian Part of Russia (Siberia): Processes, Intensity and Areal Distribution
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Conditions of the Soil Erosion Development in Siberia
30.2.1 Relief
30.2.2 Climate
30.2.3 Soils
30.2.4 Vegetation
30.3 Processes of Slope Wash
30.3.1 Rate of Soils Loss on Slopes with Natural Steppe Vegetation
30.3.2 The Intensity of Soil Loss from by Snowmelt Runoff in Western Siberia
30.3.3 The Intensity of Soil Loss from Arable and Pasture Lands of Eastern Siberia
30.4 Territorial Distribution of Soil Erosion
30.4.1 Erosion Hazard of Rains
30.4.2 Anti-Erosion Stability of Soils
30.4.3 Erosion Potential of the Relief
30.4.4 Soil Protection Properties of Agrocenoses
30.4.5 Erosion-Hazardous Lands in the South of Eastern Siberia
30.5 Trends in Erosion Processes
30.6 Gully Erosion
30.7 Soil Deflation in Siberia
30.8 Erosion Zoning of Siberia
References
31 Ecological Consequences of Soil Degradation and Water Pollution in the Asian Part of Russia (Siberia)
31.1 Ecological State of Soils in the South
31.2 Agrogenic and Post-Agrogenic Transformation of Soils of Tunka Depression (South-Western Baikal Region)
31.3 Ecological Consequences of Water Pollution in the Asian Part of Russia
31.3.1 Sedimentation and Degradation of Small Rivers
31.4 Soil-Protective Research and Activities in the South of Siberia
References
32 Soil Erosion on Agricultural Lands in the Russian Far East Region
32.1 Factors Contributing to Soil Erosion in the Russian Far East
32.2 Erosional Zoning of the Far East
32.3 Distribution and Intensity of Erosion Processes
32.3.1 The Amuro-Zeysky Province
32.3.2 The Amuro-Sakhalin Province
32.3.3 The Near-Pacific Province
32.4 Influence of Soils Loss on Their Fertility
32.5 Ecological Consequences of Soil Degradation and Water Pollution
References
Australian Region
Introduction of the First Authors
33 Issues and Challenges in the Rehabilitation and Sustainable Use of Highly Disturbed Lands Associated with Mining Activities in Australia
33.1 Introduction
33.1.1 Acidic, Neutral and Saline Discharges
33.1.2 Definition of Restoration Towards an End Land Use
33.2 Types and Extent of Land Disturbance
33.3 Case Studies
33.3.1 Restoration of Ecosystem After Bauxite Mining
33.3.2 Designing Postmining Landscapes Following Open-Cut Coalmining that Minimise Erosion Risk and Discharges on the Receiving Environment
33.4 Summary
References
34 Issues and Challenges in the Sustainable Use of Soil and Water Resources in Australian Agricultural Lands
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Soil Acidification
34.2.1 Susceptible Agricultural Sectors and Trends in Soil Acidification
34.2.2 Impacts of Soil Acidification
34.3 Soil Organic Matter Decline
34.3.1 Soil Organic C
34.3.2 Nutrient Depletion
34.3.3 Impacts of Loss of Soil Organic Matter: Soil Structural Decline
34.3.4 Management Options to Restore Soil Organic Matter
34.4 Degradation Associated with Salinity and Sodicity
34.4.1 Definitions of Saline, Sodic and Saline-Sodic Soils
34.4.2 Changing Land Use and Degradation Through Soil Salinization and Sodification
34.4.3 The Extent and Impact of Salinity and Sodicity in Rangeland and Cropping Lands
34.4.4 Management and Rehabilitation of Salinity and Sodicity
34.5 Wind Erosion
34.5.1 Dust Storm Index (DSI)
34.5.2 Factors Leading to Reduced DSI
34.6 Soil Erosion by Water
34.6.1 Australia’s Response to Degradation Associated with Water Erosion
34.6.2 GBR Case Study
34.7 Technical Knowledge Base
34.8 Executive Summary
References