Global Arsenic Hazard: Ecotoxicology and Remediation

Contents
1 Global Arsenic Hazard and Sustainable Development
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Global Arsenic Problem—Developing and Developed World Concern
1.3 Global Arsenic Research to Seek Solution of the Problem
1.4 Arsenic and Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations
1.5 Important Contents of the Book
1.6 Future Outlooks
References
2 Global Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater, Soil and Food Crops and Health Impacts
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Arsenic: An Environmental Contaminant of Global Concern
2.2.1 Groundwater Arsenic Contamination
2.2.2 Sources of Arsenic in Groundwater
2.2.3 Soil Arsenic Contamination
2.2.4 Soil-Plant Transfer of Arsenic: Possible Buildup in Food Chain
2.3 Arsenic Contamination in Pakistan
2.3.1 Hydro-Geography and Climate of Pakistan
2.3.2 Arsenic Groundwater Contamination in Pakistan
2.3.3 Arsenic Soil Contamination in Pakistan
2.3.4 Food-Chain Contamination
2.4 Conclusions
References
3 Arsenic Contamination in Rice and the Possible Mitigation Options
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Origin and Forms of Arsenic in Soil and Groundwater
3.3 Arsenic in Soil as Influenced by Different Factors
3.4 Arsenic Uptake Mechanism in Rice Plant
3.5 Mobilization of as Through Root-Shoot-Grain
3.6 Strategies for Mitigating as Accumulation in Rice
3.6.1 Addition of Inorganic Amendments
3.6.2 Organic Amendments and Water Management Practices
3.7 Developing Predictability Models
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Arsenic in Gold Mining Wastes: An Environmental and Human Health Threat in Ghana
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Arsenic Chemistry, Characteristics and Forms in Soils and Sediments
4.1.2 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of As Contamination
4.1.3 Soil and Biogeochemical Factors Influencing As Contamination and Mobilisation
4.1.4 Toxicity of Arsenic
4.1.5 Remediation of As-Contaminated Sites
4.2 Conclusions and Prospects for Future Research
References
5 Arsenic Contamination in Karst Regions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Arsenic Contamination in Karst Regions
5.2.1 Arsenic Contamination in Soils
5.2.2 Arsenic Contamination in Surface and Underground Water
5.2.3 Arsenic Contamination in Plants
5.3 Environmental Fate of Arsenic in Karst Regions
5.3.1 Arsenic Mobilization in the Environment
5.3.2 Factors Controlling Arsenic Speciation and Mobilization in Karst Regions
5.4 Human Health Risks of Arsenic in Karst Regions
References
6 Arsenic Dynamics in Paddy Rice Ecosystems and Human Exposure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Arsenic as a Global Dilemma in Rice Cultivation
6.3 Arsenic Dynamics Across Paddy Soil–water Interfaces
6.3.1 Effects of Soil pH and Eh
6.3.2 Effects of Redox Sensitive Minerals
6.3.3 Effects of Organic Carbon
6.3.4 Role of Soil Microorganisms
6.4 Arsenic Metabolism in Rice Plants
6.4.1 Uptake Pathways of As(III)
6.4.2 Uptake Pathways of As(V)
6.4.3 Uptake of Methylated As Species
6.4.4 Translocation of As Species from Root to Shoot
6.4.5 Arsenic Loading to Rice Grain
6.5 Grain Arsenic and Human Exposure
6.5.1 Arsenic Toxicity on Rice Quality
6.5.2 Human Exposure to Arsenic by Rice
6.6 Remarks and Future Recommendations
References
7 Interaction of Arsenic with Biochar in Water and Soil: Principles, Applications, and Prospects
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Different Technologies Used for Arsenic Removal in Water and Soil Systems
7.3 Biochar
7.3.1 Production of Biochar
7.3.2 Biochar as a Candidate for As Removal
7.4 Application of Biochar for As Remediation in Water
7.4.1 Use of Non-Activated- Biochar for As Removal in Water
7.4.2 Use of Activated Biochar for As Removal
7.5 Application of Biochar for Remediation of As Contaminated Soil
7.5.1 Use of Non-Activated Biochar for As Removal in Soil
7.5.2 Use of Activated Biochar for As Removal in Soil
7.6 Limitations
7.7 Conclusions
References
8 Accumulation and Translocation of Arsenic in Rice with Its Distributional Flow During Cooking: A Study in West Bengal, India
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials and Methods
8.2.1 Study Area
8.2.2 Sample Collection, Preparation and Preservation
8.2.3 Chemicals and Reagents
8.2.4 Digestion and Estimation of Arsenic
8.2.5 Micronutrient Analysis
8.2.6 Quality Control and Quality Assurance
8.3 Results and Discussion
8.3.1 Accumulation and Translocation of Arsenic in Different Parts of Whole Paddy Grain Located in Single Pedicel (Height Wise)
8.3.2 Arsenic Localization in Single Paddy Grain
8.3.3 Selenium and Zinc Along with Arsenic Distribution in Rice Grain
8.3.4 Interpretation of Arsenic Flow at the Time of Cooked Rice Preparation
8.3.5 Arsenic Species Distribution in Rice Grain
8.4 Mitigation Strategies to Reduce Rice Grain Arsenic and Conclusive Remarks
References
9 An Overview of Arsenic Contamination in Water Resources of Pakistan, Risk Assessment and Remediation Strategies
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Extent of Arsenic Contamination in Pakistan
9.3 Health Impacts of Arsenic Toxicity in Pakistan
9.4 Remediation Strategies to Reduce Arsenic Contamination
9.5 Chemical Strategies for Arsenic Remediation
9.5.1 Adsorption
9.5.2 Coagulation-Filtration Techniques
9.5.3 Chemical Precipitation
9.5.4 Ion Exchange
9.5.5 Membrane
9.5.6 Arsenic Removal Through Biological Techniques
9.5.7 Microbial Bioremediation
9.5.8 Phytoremediation: A Sustainable Strategy
9.5.9 Microbial and Plants Assisted As Bioremediation (Phytobial Remediation)
9.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
10 Approaches for Stochastic Modelling of Toxic Ion Adsorption at Crystal-Water Interfaces: A Case Study of Arsenic
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Crystal-Fluid Interface Structure
10.3 Kinetic Monte Carlo Modelling
10.3.1 Mathematical Foundations of the Method
10.3.2 Description of a System Modeled
10.3.3 Adsorption Kinetics
10.3.4 Monte Carlo Algorithms
10.3.5 Adsorption of As(V) on Hematite Nanocrystals
10.4 Statistical Mechanics Approaches
References
11 A Comparison of Technologies for Remediation of Arsenic-Bearing Water: The Significance of Constructed Wetlands
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sources of Arsenic and Its Speciation
11.3 Hazardous Effects of Arsenic on the Human Health
11.4 Challenges in Technologies to Remediate Arsenic-Contaminated Water and Wastewater
11.5 Oxidation Techniques for Arsenic Separation from Water
11.5.1 Oxidation and Filtration
11.5.2 Photo-Chemical Oxidation
11.5.3 Biological Arsenic Oxidation
11.6 Phytoremediation
11.6.1 Adsorption
11.7 Co-precipitation
11.8 Constructed Wetlands Technology for Arsenic-Contaminated Water Treatment
11.8.1 Adsorption Media in Constructed Wetlands
11.8.2 Methylation of Arsenic in Constructed Wetlands
11.9 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
12 Application of Nanotechnology in Mitigating Arsenic Stress and Accumulation in Crops: Where We Are and Where We Are Moving Towards
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 As Contamination in Soils
12.1.2 Adverse Impact of As Contamination on Plant Productivity
12.1.3 Arsenic Accumulation and Transportation in Plant
12.1.4 Arsenic Exposure in Humans Through Dietary Sources and Health Hazards
12.2 Glimpses of Remediation Techniques Employed So Far
12.2.1 Need for Nanoparticles for Managing As Contamination in Soil
12.2.2 Nano-Materials in Soil–Water-Plant Interfaces
12.3 NPs in As Stress Mitigation
12.4 Merit and Demerits of Nanoparticles in Soil–Water-Plant System and Scope of Work
References
13 Nano-Enabled Remediation of Arsenic-Bearing Water and Wastewater
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nanoadsorbents Classification and Applications
13.2.1 Types of Nanoparticles Used for Arsenic Removal
13.2.2 Metallic-Based Nanoparticles
13.2.3 Bi-Metal Oxides Nanoparticles
13.3 Adsorption Process of Nanoparticles
13.4 Characterization of Nanoparticles
13.5 Regeneration of Nanoparticles
13.6 Influence of Different Parameters on NPs
13.6.1 Effect of pH
13.6.2 Effect of Synthesis Method
13.6.3 Effect of Initial Arsenic Concentration
13.6.4 Effect of Nanoparticle Size
13.6.5 Effect of Competing Ions
13.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
14 Molecular Aspects of Arsenic Responsive Microbes in Soil-Plant-Aqueous Triphasic Systems
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Arsenic Distribution in Soil-water-Plant-Microbiome
14.2.1 Arsenic Release from Aquifers and Contamination of Soil-Sediments
14.2.2 Arsenic Stress Response in Plants and Microbial Involvement
14.3 Development of As Resistance Mechanism in Microbes
14.4 Microbial Detoxification Mechanisms for Arsenicals in the Environment
14.4.1 The Entry of As into the Microbial Cells
14.4.2 Reduction of As(V)
14.4.3 Oxidation of As(III)
14.4.4 Methylation of As(III)
14.5 Factors Influencing As Biotransformation
14.6 Arsenomics
14.6.1 Microbial Arsenic Resistance and Transcriptomics Studies
14.6.2 Microbial Proteomics of Arsenic Responsive Strategies
14.7 Plant Growth Enhancement by Microbial Amelioration
14.8 Microbial Applicability as Engineered Bioagent
14.9 Microbial Environmental Clean-Up and Restoration
14.10 Concluding Remarks and Future Aspects
References
15 Phosphate-Induced Phytoextraction by Pteris vittata Reduced Arsenic Uptake by Rice
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.2.1 Soil Sampling and Characterization
15.2.2 Green House Study and Rice Cultivation
15.2.3 Sequential Fractionation of Soil As and Available As Analysis
15.2.4 Sample Digestion and Analysis
15.2.5 Human Health Risk Assessment
15.2.6 Statistical Analysis
15.3 Results
15.3.1 Biomass Yield of the Fern
15.3.2 Arsenic Uptake by the Fern
15.3.3 Changes in Soil As Fractions
15.3.4 Rice Yield and As Content in Rice
15.3.5 Arsenic Uptake by Rice Grain
15.3.6 Lifetime Cancer Risk (CR) Associated with Ingestion Exposure was Calculated Using
15.4 Discussion
References
16 Modified Biosorbents as Potential Biomaterials for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Environmental Factors Influencing Arsenic Sorption
16.2.1 Effect of pH
16.2.2 Effect of Contact Time
16.2.3 Effect of Arsenic Ions Concentration
16.2.4 Effect of Sorbent Dose
16.2.5 Effect of Anions
16.3 Mechanism of Arsenic Sorption
16.3.1 Physical Sorption
16.3.2 Ion Exchange
16.3.3 Complexation
16.3.4 Chemisorption
16.3.5 Precipitation
16.4 Modification Methods
16.4.1 Polyethylenimine (PEI) Modified Zea Mays
16.4.2 Aluminium Modified Guava Seeds
16.4.3 Sodium Bicarbonate Modified Wheat Straw
16.4.4 Citric Acid Treated Water Melon Rind
16.4.5 Fe(III) Oxyhydroxide Modified Sawdust of Spruce
16.4.6 Modified TiO2 Pomegrante Peel
16.4.7 Polyethylenimine (PEI) Leucaena Leucocephala (Subabul) Seed Powder
16.4.8 2-Mercaptoethanol Modified Sugarcane Bagasse
16.4.9 Modified Chicken Feathers by Diverse Doping Agents
16.4.10 Agricultural-Based Biowaste (Orange Peel, Banana Peel and Rice Husk)
16.4.11 Perilla Leaf Biochar with Modified Spectroscopic and Macroscopic Investigation
16.4.12 HPEI Modified Biosorbent Based on Cellulose Fiber
16.4.13 Date Seeds Husk Modified with Lemon Juice and Microwave Provision
16.4.14 Removal of Arsenic with the Use of Tamarind Bark
16.4.15 Chemically Modified Fungal Biomass
16.4.16 Chitosan-Coated Modified Biosorbent
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 Phytoremedial Potential of Perennial Woody Vegetation Under Arsenic Contaminated Conditions in Diverse Environments
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Sources of Arsenic
17.2.1 Natural Sources
17.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources
17.3 Factor Affecting Arsenic Uptake by Trees
17.3.1 Soil Properties
17.3.2 Soil Types (Sand, Silt and Clay Interaction)
17.4 Impact of Various Geo-Environmental Factors on Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils
17.5 Phytoremediation of Arsenic Through Woody Vegetation
17.5.1 Phytostablization
17.5.2 Phytoextraction
17.5.3 Phytodegradation
17.5.4 Rhizodegradation
17.5.5 Rhizofiltration
17.5.6 Potential of Tree Species to Remediate Arsenic
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Bacterial Tolerance and Biotransformation of Arsenic in Soil and Aqueous Media
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Arsenic in the Environment: Sources and Toxicity
18.3 As Remediation in the Environment
18.3.1 Conventional Methods for As Remediation and Their Disadvantages
18.3.2 Bioremediation of Arsenic from the Environment
18.4 Arsenic Bacteria Interactions in the Environment
18.4.1 Arsenic Resistance in Bacteria
18.4.2 Arsinite [As(III)] Oxidation by Bacteria
18.4.3 Arsenate Reduction by Bacteria
18.4.4 Arsenic Adsorption by Bacteria
18.4.5 Arsenic Methylation and Demethylation by Bacteria
18.4.6 Arsenic Volatilization by Bacteria
18.5 Environmental Factors Affecting the Biotranformations of Arsenic by Bacteria
18.6 Applications of Bacteria for Bioremediation of Arsenic in Soil and Water
18.6.1 Removal from Water
18.6.2 Removal from Soil
18.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
19 Arsenic Bioremediation of Soil and Water Systems—An Overview
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Arsenic (As) in Soil–Water System
19.2 Remediation Measures
19.2.1 Physicochemical Methods
19.2.2 Bioremediation Approaches
19.3 Concluding Remarks
References
20 Modern Aspects of Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Origin and Occurrence of Arsenic
20.3 Historical Usage of Arsenic
20.4 Arsenic Phytoremediation
20.4.1 Phytoextraction
20.4.2 Phytostabilization
20.4.3 Phytofiltration
20.4.4 Phytovoltalization
20.5 Consumption and Transportation of Arsenic in Plants
20.5.1 Transportation of Arsenic in Plants by Phosphate Carriers
20.5.2 Transport of Arsenic by Aquaporins
20.5.3 Involvement of Silicon Carriers in Transportation of Arsenic
20.5.4 Consumption and Transportation of Methylated Arsenic Species in Plants
20.5.5 Consumption and Transportation of Thioarsenate Species in Plants
20.5.6 Process of Arsenic Decontamination in Plants
20.6 Integrated Approaches for Enhanced Phytoremediation
20.6.1 Phytobial Remediation
20.6.2 Transgenic Phyto and Phytobial Remediation
20.6.3 Phytoaugmentation (Addition of Abiotic Factors)
20.6.4 Nano Phytoremediation
20.6.5 Phytosuctionpartition
20.6.6 Electrokinesis Assisted Phytoremediation
20.6.7 Co-cultivation and Intercropping
20.7 Disposal of Plants After Remediation
20.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
21 Nanoparticulate Iron Oxide Minerals for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Technologies for Arsenic Removal from Water
21.3 Traditional Techniques
21.3.1 Physicochemical Technologies for Arsenic Removal
21.3.2 Biological Methods for Arsenic Removal
21.4 Production of Nanoparticles and Their Implications
21.5 Technology for Nanoparticles Biosynthesis
21.6 Biocompatible Green Reagents Synthesis Biopolymers
21.7 Arsenic Removal Using Nanoparticulate Iron Oxides
21.8 Arsenic Removal Adsorption Process
21.8.1 Coagulation/Flocculation
21.8.2 Ion Exchange Method
21.9 Adsorption of Arsenic on Nano-Iron Enabled Minerals
21.9.1 Nano Iron Oxide Minerals for Arsenic Adsorption
21.9.2 Arsenic Adsorption on Nanoparticulate Iron Oxide Minerals and Effect of Various Factors
21.9.3 Adsorption of Arsenic by Iron Oxide Minerals in Water
21.10 Arsenic Adsorption Mechanisms on Nanoparticulate Iron Oxide Minerals
21.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
22 Arsenic-Toxicity and Tolerance: Phytochelatin-Mediated Detoxification and Genetic Engineering-Based Remediation
22.1 Introduction: Why is Arsenic One of the Most Toxic Elements on Earth?
22.2 How is As Taken up by Plants and Translocated to Different Plant Parts?
22.2.1 Bioavailability and As Speciation in Soil
22.2.2 Arsenic Uptake and Translocation by Plants from Soil
22.3 What Effects As Induce on Plant Metabolism, Growth, Physiology and Yield?
22.3.1 Cellular Effects of As-Toxicity
22.3.2 Metabolic Effects of As-Toxicity
22.4 How Do Plants Counter As-Induced Stress?
22.4.1 Arsenic-Sequestration Mediated Detoxification
22.4.2 Cellular Antioxidants-Mediated Scavenging of Generated Oxidative Stress
22.5 How Can Genetic Engineering Help in As-Stress Alleviation?
22.6 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
23 Distribution of Arsenic in Rice Grain from West Bengal, India: Its Relevance to Geographical Origin, Variety, Cultivars and Cultivation Season
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Materials and Methods
23.2.1 Study Area
23.2.2 Sample Collection, Preparation and Preservation
23.2.3 Chemicals and Reagents for Arsenic Analysis
23.2.4 Digestion
23.2.5 Arsenic Analysis
23.2.6 Quality Control and Quality Assurance
23.3 Results and Discussion
23.3.1 Contamination Quotient of Arsenic in Rice Grain with Respect to Its Different Cultivation Areas
23.3.2 Appraisal of Arsenic Concentration in Rice Grain with Respect to Its Varied Range of Cultivars
23.3.3 Rice Grain Arsenic Assimilation Scenario with Respect to Its Sunned or Parboiled Variety
23.3.4 Cultivation Seasons and Its Impact on Rice Grain Arsenic Accumulation
23.4 Conclusive Remarks and Future Remedial Aspects for Rice Grain Arsenic Contamination
References
24 Arsenic Contamination in Soil and Water Across South East Asia: Its Impact and Mitigation Strategies
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Status of Arsenic Pollution in South East Asia
24.2.1 Bangladesh
24.2.2 Cambodia
24.2.3 China
24.2.4 India
24.2.5 Myanmar
24.2.6 Nepal
24.2.7 Pakistan
24.2.8 Thailand
24.2.9 Vietnam
24.3 Factors Influencing Arsenic Mobilization and Uptake by Crops
24.3.1 Arsenic Speciation
24.3.2 Soil Organic Matter
24.3.3 Soil pH
24.3.4 Soil Moisture
24.3.5 Soil Texture
24.4 Impact of Arsenic Toxicity on Growth and Productivity of Plants
24.4.1 Seed Germination
24.4.2 Growth
24.4.3 Yield
24.4.4 Oxidative Stress
24.5 Strategies to Mitigate Arsenic Toxicity
24.5.1 Microbial Bioremediation of Arsenic
24.5.2 Phytoremediation
24.5.3 Irrigation Management
24.5.4 Fertilizer Management
24.5.5 Biochar
24.6 Future Perspectives
24.7 Conclusion
References