The Arctic has become a global arena. This development can only be comprehensively understood from a transdisciplinary perspective encompassing ecological, cultural, societal, economic, industrial, geopolitical, and security considerations. This book offers thorough explanations of Arctic developments and challenges. Global warming is in large part the driving force behind the transformation of the Arctic by making access possible to the areas previously out of reach for mining and shipping. An all-year ice-free Arctic Ocean, a reality possible as soon as perhaps 2030, creates a new dynamic in the North. The retreating ice edge enables the exploitation of previously inaccessible resources such as hydrocarbon deposits and rare metals, as well as the shortest sea route from Asia to Europe. Consequently, the Northern Sea Route (NSR) promises faster and cheaper shipping. Russia, along side foreign investment, especially from China, is financing the needed infrastructure.
A warming Arctic, however, also has negative impacts. The Arctic is home to fragile ecosystems that are already showing signs of deteriorating. The Arctic has seen unprecedented wildfires, which, together with the release of trapped methane from the disappearing permafrost, will, in turn, accelerate global warming. A warmer Arctic Ocean will also negatively impact fisheries. Couple this with other global changes, such as ocean acidification and modified ocean currents, and the global outlook is bleak. Additionally, the security situation in the Arctic is worsening. After the 2014 Ukraine crisis, the West imposed sanctions on the Russian Federation, which have revived the divisions of the Cold War. The reemergence of these postures is threatening the highly successful Barents Cooperation and other initiatives for peace in the circumpolar North. This book offers new insights and presents arguments for how to mitigate the challenges the Arctic is facing today.
Author(s): Matthias Finger, Gunnar Rekvig
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 484
City: Cham
Acknowledgment
Contents
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction
The GlobalArctic Project
What Is the GlobalArctic?
Structure of the Book and Summary of the Chapters
Evolving Images and Perceptions
Geography, Environment, and Climate
Economics and Geopolitics
Governance
Conclusion
References
Part I: Evolving Images and Perceptions
Chapter 2: Indigenous Peoples of the Circumpolar North
Baseline of Indigeneity: The Peopling of the Arctic
Recent History
Self-Identification, Recognition by Arctic States, and Demography
Pillars of Identities
Relationship with the Natural Environment
Language
Spirituality, Values and Indigenous Knowledge
Arts, Handicrafts, Sports, and Games
Some Current Challenges
Health
Education and Gender Imbalance
(Un)Employment and Poverty
Environment, Renewable Resources, Food Security
Climate and Environmental Change
Perspectives
References
Chapter 3: Arctic Cities-Pioneers of Industrialization: More than “Mining Towns”
Introduction
The Beginning of Industrialization: In Pursuit of Gold
Iron and Other Ores Create New City-Islands in the Arctic
Sweden: Kiruna, a Place of an “Ore Rush”
The Murmansk Railway Opens the Way to the Development of the Kola Ores
Norilsk: Nickel, Copper, and “Black Gold”
Cities on the “Caravan Routes”
Vegetable Gardens and Scientific Bases
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Arctic as a New Strategic Region in the Soviet Union in the 1920s–1930s and Transformation of the Arctic Science
Introduction
Terminology: “Arctic”, “North”, “Polar Countries”, or “Zapolyarye”?
Pre-revolutionary and Soviet Research of the Arctic: Continuity and Novelties
1920s: Scientific Community as the Engine of the Arctic Idea
The First Arctic Research Institutions
Northern Scientific-Commercial Expedition, Institute for the Study of the North, All-union Arctic Institute
Floating Marine Research Institute, State Oceanographic Institute
Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition, Northern Hydrographic Expedition
Cooperation, Competition, and Coordination Challenges in the Arctic Science
Late 1920s: Sovnarkom Arctic Commission and the First Attempts to Centralize Arctic Science
Centralization of the Soviet Arctic Science in 1932–1941
Centralization and Efficiency?
Dark Side of the Party Intervention and Arctic Explorers’ Repressions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Norway in the Cold War – A Contemporary Case for Today
Introduction
Existing Explanations, and a New One
Decision to Join North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1946–1949
Containment and the Emerging Bipolar World (1950–1959)
Militarization and Security Dilemma in the High North (1960–1979)
US and NATO Naval Strategies and Consequences for Norway in the High North (1980–1990)
The Cold War: A Contemporary Case for Today
Bibliography
Chapter 6: The Post-Cold War Arctic
Introduction
Visions for, and Triggers Ensuing Significant Geopolitical Changes in, the Arctic
Characteristics of Post-Cold War Arctic Geopolitics: Main Trends and Dynamics
Reinterpreting Geopolitics and Security by Broadening the Scope
Common Interests of the Arctic States and Special Features of the Arctic Geopolitics
Gorbachev’s Vision Vis-à-Vis Current State/Today’s Vision
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: The Arctic as the Last Frontier: Tourism
Introduction
Facts and Figures on Arctic Tourism Development
Arctic Transport Infrastructure
Tourism Resources of the Arctic
Arctic Allures
An Emerging Research Agenda
Challenges of Sustainability
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 8: A Primary Node of the Global Economy: China and the Arctic
Introduction
China’s Primary Node Vision and Functional Economic Regions
Political Aims of the Primary Node Vision
China–Arctic Functional Economic Region
Natural Resources
Seaborne Goods
Technology, Knowledge, and Data
Conclusion
References
Part II: Geography, Environment, and Climate
Chapter 9: Climate Effects of Other Pollutants – Short-Lived Climate Forcers and the Arctic
Introduction
Where Do They Come from? Emissions and Sources of SLCFs
Are the Emission Trends Visible in Concentrations of SLCFs in the Arctic?
What Does the “Climate” Stand for in Short-Lived Climate Forcers?
SLCF in the Arctic Context – Climate and Health Impacts
Policy Landscape of SLCF Mitigation – An Arctic Perspective
SLCF Policy Efforts by the Arctic Council
Can the Arctic Countries Achieve the Vision and the Black Carbon Goal?
Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Permafrost Climate Feedbacks
Introduction
Background
Subdividing the Permafrost Zone
Why Do Permafrost Regions Contain So Much Carbon and Nitrogen?
Permafrost and Climate Response
Greenhouse gases Ruled by Redox Conditions, Microbial Communities, and Substrate
How Is Climate Changing in the Permafrost Zone?
How Are These Changes Affecting Permafrost Climate Feedbacks?
Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Impacts of Global Warming on Arctic Biota
Introduction
Sea-Ice Retreat and Its Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences on Wildlife
Loss of Multi-Year Ice Threatens Native Ice-Associated Communities
Loss of a Productive Habitat at the Ice Edge
Alteration of the Coastal Sea-Ice and Consequences for Land Organisms
Effects of Boreal Invasion on Arctic Species
Replacement Species of Lower Quality
Arctic Specialists Outcompeted by Boreal Generalists
Tundra Ecosystem Altered from Changes in Vegetation Productivity and Availability
Arctic Vegetation Greening or Browning?
Ecosystem Consequences of Winter Warm Spells
Spatial Variation as a Key to Maintaining Tundra Biodiversity
Conclusion and Future Outlooks
References
Chapter 12: Pollution and Monitoring in the Arctic
Introduction
Background
Materials and Methods
Pollution in the Arctic
Microplastic
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Human Biological Monitoring
Stakeholders of the Environmental Monitoring in the Arctic
Access to Monitoring Data
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Part III: Economics and Geopolitics
Chapter 13: The Quest for the Ultimate Resources: Oil, Gas, and Coal
Introduction
Analytical Framework
Policy Considerations
Technologies
Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE)
Brief History
Country-by-Country Analysis
Canada
Denmark/Greenland
Iceland
Norway
Russia
United States
Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
Chapter 14: Arctic Fisheries in a Changing Climate
Introduction
Arctic Marine Ecosystems and Their Fishery Resources
Physical Setting and Biological Dynamics
Fish Communities in the Arctic
Climate Change Impacts on Arctic Marine Environments
Fisheries Research and Management for a Sustainable Arctic
Changing Fisheries in Arctic Shelf Regions
Fisheries Monitoring and Research in the Central Arctic Ocean
Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Infrastructure Projects in the Global Arctic
Introduction
Features and Drivers of Infrastructure Megaprojects in the Arctic
Technology and Arctic Infrastructure Megaprojects
Modern Features of Arctic Infrastructure Megaprojects: Globalization, Climate Change, and Attraction to the Sea
General Types and Special Cases of Arctic Infrastructure Megaprojects
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: New Arctic Seaways and the Role of China in Regime Formation
Introduction
China’s Participation in Arctic Seaways Development
The North-East Passage
The North-West Passage (NWP)
The Central Passage (CP)
China’s Capacity to Influence the Arctic Regime
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Sustainable Development of the Arctic?
Introduction
From Earth System Dynamics to Arctic Tipping Points
Earth System Dynamics
“Development Was the Problem, Not the Solution”
Arctic Tipping Points
The “Arctic Paradox”
The World’s Hunger for Resources
What Does the Warming Arctic Have in Store?
Sustainable Development of the Arctic?
Actors of Arctic Development
Human Development of the Arctic?
Conclusion: Why “Sustainable Development of the Arctic” Still Matters
References
Part IV: Governance
Chapter 18: Between Resource Frontier and Self-Determination: Colonial and Postcolonial Developments in the Arctic
Introduction
The Arctic by Region
Siberia
Russian America/Alaska
Canada
Greenland
Sápmi – The Land of the Sámi (or, Northern Fennoscandia and Northwest Russia)
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 19: Understanding Cold War Trust-Building Between Norway and the Soviet Union. Norwegian-Russian Relations – A History of Peaceful Coexistence
Introduction
Current Outlook
Historical Background of Norway–Russia Relations
Pomor Trade
The Second World War
Cold War Trust-Building
Culture Agreement
Science Cooperation and Fisheries Management
Barents Sea Boundary Delimitation and a Moratorium on Hydrocarbon Extraction
Self-Imposed Military Restrictions
Trust in Norway-Soviet Union Relations
Trust-Building and Costly Signaling
A Departure from Cold War Trust
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 20: Regional Governance: The Case of the Barents Region
Introduction – Between the Arctic and Europe
A Long Journey Through the Barents Region Metabolism
From the Constitutive Mythology of the Viking Era to the Prosperous Fisheries
The Memory of the Second World War and the Cold War Proof
The Promise of an Era of Peace and Cooperation
2014 and the Epoch of Uncertainties
Crimea and the Spillover Effect: Military Posture and Diplomatic Chill
Local Cooperation as a Strong Driver to Dodge the Crisis
Climate Change and the Barents Governance: The Search for Socio-Ecological Balance
Ecological Dynamic vs. Economic Rationale
The Need to Boost and (Re)shape Institutional Arrangements
Conclusion – In the Age of the Anthropocene
References
Chapter 21: The Arctic Council at 25: Incremental Building of a More Ambitious Inter-governmental Forum
Introduction
From the AEPS to the Arctic Council
Emerging Challenges and Institutional Response
Critique and Proposals for Reform
The Arctic Council on Its 25th Anniversary – Can the Structure of the Arctic Council Meet the Challenges of Tomorrow?
Bibliography
Chapter 22: The European Union and Arctic Security Governance
Introduction
Setting the Stage
Regional Relations in the Arctic
Global Power Politics Through the Arctic
Sub-regional Concerns Within the Arctic
The European Union and Its Decade of Arcticness
Analysis: Three Arctic Levels and the European Union
Conclusion
References
Chapter 23: Global Conventions and Regional Cooperation: The Multifaceted Dynamics of Arctic Governance
Introduction: Analyzing Institutional Dynamics in the “Globally Embedded” Arctic
The Nexus Between Regional and Global Governance: An Analytical Framework
The Regional-Global Nexus in Arctic Governance
Marine and Maritime Space Delimitation, Shipping, and Marine Pollution
Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Participation
Climate Change
Environmental Protection and Conservation
Arctic Legal Instruments
Conclusion: How to Make Sense of the Regional-Global Nexus in the Arctic
References
Chapter 24: Arctic Order(s) Under Sino-American Bipolarity
Introduction: International Order and Arctic Order
Unipolar, Bipolar, and Multipolar Systems
Realist, Agnostic, or Liberal International Order and Arctic Order
International Order and Bounded Order, Also in the Arctic
Thick or Thin Order
Cold War International Order and Arctic Bounded Orders
Post-Cold War International Order – Post-Cold War Arctic Order
The Return of Russia as Great Power in the Caucasus and Eastern Europe and Effects on Arctic Order
Russian-European Competition in the Caucasus, Black Sea, Eastern Europe and Baltic
Arctic Consequences of Russian-European Eastern European Competition
Loose Sino-American Bipolarity, US and Chinese Bounded Orders in the Arctic
Sino-American International Order as Framework for Arctic Bounded Order
US and Chinese Bounded Orders in the Arctic
US Arctic Bounded Order
The EU Between US and Sino-Russian Arctic Bounded Orders
Sino-Russian Arctic Bounded Order
Conclusion – Circumpolar Arctic Bounded Order or US and Sino-Russian Arctic Bounded Orders
References
Index
