Geosystems Core

Cover
Inside Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Digital & Print Resources
About the Authors
Introduction to Physical Geography
I.1. The World Around Us
Asking Geographic Questions
I.2. The Science of Geography
Geographic Perspectives
The Scientific Process
Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century
I.3. Earth Systems
Systems Theory
Earth Spheres & Systems Organization in Geosystems Core
I.4. Earth Locations & Times
Earth’s Dimensions & Shape
Earth’s Reference Grid
Meridians & Global Time
I.5. Maps & Cartography
Basic Map Elements
The Scale of Maps
Map Projections
Types of Maps
I.6. Modern Geoscience Tools
Global Positioning System
Remote Sensing
Geographic Information Systems & Geovisualizatio
The Human Denominator 1: Seasons and the Atmosphere
Introduction Review
GeoLab: Mapping for Sustainability: How Eco-Friendly Is Your Campus?
1. Solar Energy, Seasons, & the Atmosphere
1.1. Our Galaxy & Solar System
Earth’s Place in Space
Dimensions, Distances, & Earth’s Orbit
1.2. Energy from the Sun
Solar Activity & Solar Wind
Auroras
1.3. Electromagnetic Spectrum
Comparing Earth & Sun as Radiating Bodies
1.4. Incoming Energy & Net Radiation
Insolation & the Solar Constant
Uneven Distribution of Insolation
Global Net Radiation
1.5. The Seasons
Seasonality
Reasons for Seasons
March of the Seasons
1.6. Atmospheric Composition
Atmospheric Profile
Atmospheric Gases
1.7. Atmospheric Temperature
Thermosphere
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
Troposphere
1.8. The Atmosphere’s Functional Layers
Ionosphere
Ozone layer
Stratospheric Ozone Losses: A Continuing Health Hazard
1.9. Variable Atmospheric Components
Natural Sources of Air Pollution
Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution
1.10. Anthropogenic Pollution
Photochemical Smog
Industrial Smog & Sulfur Oxides
Particulates
Effects of the Clean Air Act
The Human Denominator 1: Seasons & the Atmosphere
Chapter 1: Review
GeoLab1: Seasonal Changes: What is the role of latitude in changing insolation & day length?
2. Atmospheric Energy & Global Temperatures
2.1. Energy Balance Essentials
Energy & Heat
Methods of Heat Transfer
Shortwave & Longwave Radiation
2.2. Insolation Input & Albedo
Scattering (Diffuse Radiation)
Reflection & Albedo
Absorption
2.3. The Greenhouse Effect, Clouds, & Atmospheric Warming
The Greenhouse Effect & Atmospheric Warming
Clouds & Earth’s “Greenhouse”
Aerosols & Global Temperatures
2.4. Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance
Distribution of Energy by Latitude
Inputs & Outputs
2.5. Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface
Patterns of Insolation & Temperature
Simplified Surface Energy Balance
2.6. Temperature Concepts & Measurement
Temperature Scales
Measuring Temperature
2.7. Principal Temperature Controls
Latitude
Altitude & Elevation
Cloud Cover
Land–Water Heating Differences
Ocean Currents & Sea-Surface Temperatures
2.8. The Urban Environment
Urban Heat Islands
Mitigating UHI Effects
2.9. Earth’s Temperature Patterns
January and July Temperatures
Annual Temperature Ranges
2.10. Wind Chill, the Heat Index, & Heat Waves
Wind Chill
The Heat Index
Heat Waves & Climate Change
The Human Denominator 2: Energy Balance & Global Temperatures
Chapter 2: Review
GeoLab2: Global Temperature Patterns: Some Like It Hot
3. Atmospheric & Oceanic Circulations
3.1. Wind Essentials
Air Pressure & Its Measurement
Wind
3.2. Driving Forces within the Atmosphere
Gravitational Force
Pressure-Gradient Force
Coriolis Force
Friction Force
The Effects of Forces on Winds
3.3. Global Patterns of Pressure & Motion
Primary High-Pressure & Low-Pressure Areas
ITCZ: Warm & Rainy
Subtropical High-Pressure Cells: Hot & Dry
Subpolar Low-Pressure Cells along the Polar Front: Cool & Moist
3.4. Upper Atmospheric Circulation
Pressure in the Upper Atmosphere
Rossby Waves
Jet Streams
3.5. Local & Regional Winds
Local Winds
Monsoon Winds
3.6. Ocean Currents
Surface Currents
Thermohaline Circulation—Deep Currents
3.7. Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation
El Niño–Southern Oscillation
The Human Denominator 3: Global Circulation
Chapter 3: Review
GeoLab3: El Niño or La Niña?
4. Atmospheric Water & Weather
4.1. Water’s Unique Properties
Heat Properties & Phase Changes of Water
Water Phase Changes in the Atmosphere
4.2. Humidity—Water Vapor in the Atmosphere
Relative Humidity
Expressions of Humidity
4.3. Atmospheric Stability
Adiabatic Processes
Stable & Unstable Atmospheric Conditions
4.4. Clouds & Fog
Cloud Types & Identification
Fog
Precipitation
4.5. Air Masses
Classifying Air Masses
Air Mass Modification
4.6. Processes That Lift Air
Convergent Lifting
Convectional Lifting
Orographic Lifting
Frontal Lifting: Cold & Warm Fronts
4.7. Midlatitude Cyclones
Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone
4.8. Weather Forecasting
Doppler Radar
Weather Maps & Forecasting
4.9. Thunderstorms
Formation & Characteristics of Thunderstorms
Derechos
4.10. Tornadoes
How a Tornado Forms
Tornado Measurement & Frequency
4.11. Tropical Cyclones
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
Prediction & the Future
The Human Denominator 4: Weather
Chapter 4: Review
GeoLab4: Stormy Weather: How do you track a midlatitude cyclone on a weather map?
5. Water Resources
5.1. Water on Earth
Origin & Distribution
Worldwide Equilibrium
The Hydrologic Cycle
5.2. The Soil–Water Budget Concept
Actual & Potential Evapotranspiration
Where does Water exist on Earth?
Applying Water Budget Concepts
5.3. Surface Water & Groundwater Resources
Surface Water Resources
Groundwater Resources
5.4. Overuse of Groundwater – High Plains Aquifer
Groundwater Mining
High Plains Aquifer Overdraft
5.5. Our Water Supply
Water Supply in the United States
5.6a. Water Scarcity: The Colorado River System Out of Balance
Colorado River: Sharing a Scarce Resource
What is the Future of Water Resources in the United States?
5.6b. Water Scarcity: The New Normal?
Sierra Snowpack: California’s Dwindling Treasure
Water Scarcity: A Global Challenge
The Human Denominator 5: Water Use
Chapter 5: Review
GeoLab5: Good to the Last Drop: How do Planners use the Water Budget Concept to meet Community Needs?
6. Global Climate Systems
6.1. Components of Earth’s Climate System
Components That Interact to Produce Climate
Köppen Climate Classification System
How are Climates Classified?
6.2. Climate Classification System
6.3. Tropical Climates (Tropical Latitudes)
Tropical Rain Forest Climates
Tropical Monsoon Climates
Tropical Savanna Climates
6.4. Mesothermal Climates (Midlatitudes, Mild Winters)
Humid Subtropical Climates
Marine West Coast Climates
Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates
6.5. Microthermal Climates (Midlatitudes & High Latitudes, Cold Winters)
Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates
Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates
Subarctic Climates
6.6. Polar & Highland Climates
Tundra Climates
Ice Cap & Ice Sheet Climates
Polar Marine Climates
6.7. Dry Climates (Permanent Moisture Deficits)
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates
Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates
Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates
The Human Denominator 6: Climate Regions
Chapter 6: Review
GeoLab6: Industrial Location: Which Location is Optimum?
7. Climate Change
7.1. Deciphering Past Climates
Methods for Long-Term Climate Reconstruction
7.2. Climates of Earth’s Past
70 mya: Rapid Warming, Followed by Gradual Cooling
5 mya: Fluctuating Temperatures
7.3. Climates of the Last 20,000 Years
Methods for Short-Term Climate Reconstruction
Short-Term Climate Trends
7.4. Mechanisms of Natural Climate Change
Solar Variability
Earth’s Orbital Cycles
Continental Position & Topography
Atmospheric Gases & Aerosols
7.5. Climate Feedbacks & the Carbon Budget
The Ice–Albedo Feedback
Water Vapor Feedback
Earth’s Carbon Budget
7.6. Evidence for Present Climate Change
Rising Temperatures
Melting Ice
Rising Sea Levels
Increased Atmospheric Water Vapor
Extreme Events
7.7. Causes of Present Climate Change
Contributions of Greenhouse Gases
Factors that Affect Earth’s Energy Balance
7.8. Climate Models & Forecasts
Radiative Forcing Scenarios
Future Temperature Scenarios
Sea-Level Projections
Possible Climate Futures
7.9. Debating Climate Change
Weighing the Evidence
Skepticism
Taking a Position on Climate Change
7.10. Addressing Climate Change
Climate Change Action: Global, National, & Local
Climate Change Action: What Can You Do?
The Human Denominator 7: Taking Action on Climate Change
Chapter 7: Review
GeoLab7: Getting to the Core: Reconstructing Past Climates
8. Tectonics, Earthquakes, & Volcanism
8.1. The Vast Span of Geologic Time
Eons, Eras, Periods, & Epochs
Absolute Time & Relative Time
The Principle of Uniformitarianism
8.2. Earth History & Interior
Earth’s Formation
Earth’s Core & Magnetism
Earth’s Mantle
Earth’s Lithosphere & Crust
8.3. The Rock Cycle
Subcycles within the Geologic Cycle
Minerals, Rocks, & the Rock Cycle
Igneous Processes
Sedimentary Processes
Metamorphic Processes
8.4. Plate Tectonics
Wegener’s Hypothesis of Continental Drift
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
8.5. Seafloor Spreading & Subduction Zones
Seafloor Spreading
Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Geomagnetism
Subduction Zones
8.6. Plate Boundaries
Mechanisms of Plate Motion
Interactions at Plate Boundaries
Earthquake & Volcanic Activity Related to Plate Boundaries
Hot Spots
8.7. Deformation, Folding, & Faulting
How Stress Affects Rock: Deformation
Folding & Broad Warping
Faulting
8.8. Earthquakes
Before, During, & After an Earthquake
Earthquake Intensity & Magnitude
Earthquake Prediction
Earthquake Hazards & Safety
8.9. Volcanoes
Distribution of Volcanic Activity
Types of Volcanic Activity
Volcanic Features
Volcano Hazards & Monitoring
8.10. Mountain Building
Types of Orogenesis
The Human Denominator 8: Earth Materials & Plate Tectonics
Chapter 8: Review
GeoLab8: Life on the Edge: How do Plate Boundaries put Humans at Risk?
9. Weathering, Karst Landscapes, & Mass Movement
9.1. Weathering & Landforms
Stable & Unstable Slopes
Weathering Processes
9.2. Physical Weathering
Frost Action
Salt-Crystal Growth
Pressure-Release Jointing
9.3. Chemical Weathering
Hydration & Hydrolysis
Oxidation
Carbonation
9.4. Karst Topography
Formation of Karst
Features of Karst Landscapes
9.5. Mass Movement
The Role of Slopes
Mechanisms that Trigger Mass Movements
9.6. Types of Mass Movements
Falls & Avalanches
Landslides
Flows
Creep
Human-Induced Mass Movements
The Human Denominator 9: Weathering, Karst, & Hillslopes
Chapter 9: Review
GeoLab9: Seasonal Changes: What is the Role of Latitude in Changing Insolation & day Length?
10. River Systems & Landforms
10.1. Streams & Drainage Basins
Stream Formation
Drainage Basins
10.2. Drainage Patterns
Classifying Drainage Patterns
10.3. Stream Dynamics
Stream Gradient
Base Level
Stream Discharge
Stream Types
10.4. Fluvial Processes
Stream Erosion
How Streams Transport Sediment
Deposition of Sediment
10.5. Changes in Stream Channels
Features Formed by Stream Erosion
Stream Nickpoints
10.6. Stream Deposition
Features of Floodplains
Other Depositional Features
10.7. Floodplains & Human Settlement
Flood Hazards
Rating Floodplain Risk
The Human Denominator 10: Rivers, Floodplains, & Deltas
Chapter 10: Review
GeoLab10: Risky Waters: Determining Flood Risk
11. Coastal Systems & Wind Processes
11.1. Global Oceans & Seas
Oceans & Seas
The Chemistry of Seawater
Ocean Layers
Pollution & Oil Spills
11.2. Coastal Environments
Coastal System Components
The Coastal Environment & Sea Level
11.3. Coastal System Actions
Tides
Waves
11.4. Coastal Erosion & Deposition
Erosional Coastlines
Depositional Coastlines
11.5. Wind Erosion
Eolian Erosion
11.6. Wind Transportation & Deposition
Eolian Transportation
Eolian Deposition
11.7. Living Coastal Environments
Corals
Coral Reefs
Coastal Wetlands
11.8. Coastal Hazards & Human Impacts
Sea Level Rise
Storm Surges & Erosion
Beach Protection
The Human Denominator 11: Oceans, Coasts, & Dunes
Chapter 11: Review
GeoLab11: Trash Talk: Can We Predict the Pathway & Decomposition of Trash in the Great North Pacific Garbage Patch?
12. Glacial & Periglacial Landscapes
12.1. Glacial Processes—Ice Formation & Mass Balance
Glacial Formation
Alpine Glaciers
Continental Glaciers
12.2. Glacial Mass Balance & Movement
Glacial Mass Balance
Glacial Movement
12.3. Alpine Glacial Erosion & Landforms
How Glaciers Erode & Transport Sediment
Glacial Landforms
12.4. Glacial Deposition
Glacial Drift
Landforms Deposited by Glaciers
12.5. Periglacial Landscapes
The Geography of Permafrost
Periglacial Processes
12.6. The Pleistocene Epoch
12.7. Deciphering Past Climates
Medieval Warm Period & Little Ice Age
Mechanisms of Climate Fluctuation
12.8. Shrinking Glaciers on a Warming Planet
Polar Environments
Recent Polar Region Changes
The Human Denominator 12: The Cryosphere
Chapter 12: Review
GeoLab12: Big Relief: Using Topographic Maps to Determine Elevation Profiles
13. Ecosystems & Soils
13.1. Energy Flows & Nutrient Cycles
Ecosystem Structure & Function
What are the Living & Nonliving Components of Ecosystems?
Energy in Ecosystems
Net Primary Productivity
13.2. Biogeochemical Cycles
Oxygen & Carbon Cycles
Nitrogen Cycle
13.3. Soil Development & Soil Profiles
Natural Soil-Formation Factors
Human Impacts on Soils
Soil Horizons
13.4. Soil Characteristics
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
13.5. Energy Pathways
Trophic Relationships
Energy Pyramids
Biological Amplification
13.6. Communities: Habitat, Adaptation, & Niche
Evolution & Adaptation
The Niche Concept
13.7. Species Interactions & Distributions
Species Interactions
Abiotic Influences on Distribution
Limiting Factors Affecting Distribution
13.8. Ecosystem Disturbance & Succession
Wildfire & Fire Ecology
Terrestrial Succession
Aquatic Succession
13.9. Ecosystem Stability & Biodiversity
Ecosystem Stability & Resilience
Biodiversity on the Decline
The Human Denominator 13: Soils & Land Use
Chapter 13: Review
GeoLab13: Net Primary Productivity
14. Terrestrial Biomes
14.1. Biogeographic Divisions
Biogeographic Realms
Biomes
Ecotones
14.2. Conservation Biogeography
Invasive Species
Island Biogeography for Species Preservation
14.3. Soils: Soil Classification
Soil Taxonomy
14.4. Soils: Tropical, Arid, Grassland, & Forest Soils
Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy
14.5. Soils: Weathered Forest Soils & Young Soils
14.6. Soils: Cold, Volcanic & Organic Matter Soils
14.7. Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes: Tropics
Tropical Rain Forest
Tropical Savanna
14.8. Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes: Midlatitudes
Midlatitude Broadleaf & Mixed Forest
Boreal & Montane Forest
Temperate Rain Forest
Mediterranean Shrubland
Midlatitude Grassland
Deserts
Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes: Tundra and Anthropogenic Biomes
Arctic & Alpine Tundra
Anthropogenic Biomes
The Human Denominator 14: Anthropogenic Biomes
Chapter 14: Review
GeoLab14: Global Biomes
Appendix: Maps in This Text and Topgraphic Maps
Glossary
Credits
Index
Inside Back Cover