Geosystems Core 1E

Cover......Page 1
Inside Front Cover......Page 2
Title Page......Page 16
Copyright Page......Page 17
Brief Contents......Page 18
Contents......Page 21
Preface......Page 32
Acknowledgments......Page 33
Digital & Print Resources......Page 35
About the Authors......Page 37
Introduction to Physical Geography......Page 38
Asking Geographic Questions......Page 40
The Scientific Process......Page 42
Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century......Page 44
Systems Theory......Page 46
Earth Spheres & Systems Organization in Geosystems Core......Page 47
Earth’s Reference Grid......Page 48
Meridians & Global Time......Page 50
Basic Map Elements......Page 52
Map Projections......Page 53
Types of Maps......Page 55
Remote Sensing......Page 56
Geographic Information Systems & Geovisualizatio......Page 58
Introduction Review......Page 60
GeoLab: Mapping for Sustainability: How Eco-Friendly Is Your Campus?......Page 64
1. Solar Energy, Seasons, & the Atmosphere......Page 67
Earth’s Place in Space......Page 69
Dimensions, Distances, & Earth’s Orbit......Page 70
Solar Activity & Solar Wind......Page 71
Auroras......Page 72
Comparing Earth & Sun as Radiating Bodies......Page 73
Uneven Distribution of Insolation......Page 75
Global Net Radiation......Page 76
Seasonality......Page 77
Reasons for Seasons......Page 78
March of the Seasons......Page 79
Atmospheric Profile......Page 81
Atmospheric Gases......Page 82
Mesosphere......Page 83
Troposphere......Page 84
Ozone layer......Page 85
Stratospheric Ozone Losses: A Continuing Health Hazard......Page 86
Natural Sources of Air Pollution......Page 87
Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution......Page 88
Industrial Smog & Sulfur Oxides......Page 89
Effects of the Clean Air Act......Page 90
The Human Denominator 1: Seasons & the Atmosphere......Page 91
Chapter 1: Review......Page 92
GeoLab1: Seasonal Changes: What is the role of latitude in changing insolation & day length?......Page 95
2. Atmospheric Energy & Global Temperatures......Page 97
Energy & Heat......Page 99
Shortwave & Longwave Radiation......Page 100
Scattering (Diffuse Radiation)......Page 101
Absorption......Page 102
Clouds & Earth’s “Greenhouse”......Page 103
Aerosols & Global Temperatures......Page 104
Inputs & Outputs......Page 105
Simplified Surface Energy Balance......Page 107
Temperature Scales......Page 109
Measuring Temperature......Page 110
Altitude & Elevation......Page 111
Land–Water Heating Differences......Page 112
Ocean Currents & Sea-Surface Temperatures......Page 114
Mitigating UHI Effects......Page 115
January and July Temperatures......Page 117
Annual Temperature Ranges......Page 118
The Heat Index......Page 119
Heat Waves & Climate Change......Page 120
The Human Denominator 2: Energy Balance & Global Temperatures......Page 121
Chapter 2: Review......Page 122
GeoLab2: Global Temperature Patterns: Some Like It Hot......Page 125
3. Atmospheric & Oceanic Circulations......Page 127
Air Pressure & Its Measurement......Page 129
Wind......Page 130
Coriolis Force......Page 131
The Effects of Forces on Winds......Page 132
Primary High-Pressure & Low-Pressure Areas......Page 133
ITCZ: Warm & Rainy......Page 134
Subpolar Low-Pressure Cells along the Polar Front: Cool & Moist......Page 135
Pressure in the Upper Atmosphere......Page 137
Jet Streams......Page 138
Local Winds......Page 139
Monsoon Winds......Page 140
Surface Currents......Page 141
Thermohaline Circulation—Deep Currents......Page 142
El Niño–Southern Oscillation......Page 143
The Human Denominator 3: Global Circulation......Page 145
Chapter 3: Review......Page 146
GeoLab3: El Niño or La Niña?......Page 149
4. Atmospheric Water & Weather......Page 151
Heat Properties & Phase Changes of Water......Page 153
Water Phase Changes in the Atmosphere......Page 154
Relative Humidity......Page 155
Expressions of Humidity......Page 157
Adiabatic Processes......Page 159
Stable & Unstable Atmospheric Conditions......Page 160
4.4. Clouds & Fog......Page 161
Cloud Types & Identification......Page 162
Precipitation......Page 163
Classifying Air Masses......Page 165
Air Mass Modification......Page 166
Orographic Lifting......Page 167
Frontal Lifting: Cold & Warm Fronts......Page 169
Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone......Page 171
4.8. Weather Forecasting......Page 173
Weather Maps & Forecasting......Page 174
Formation & Characteristics of Thunderstorms......Page 175
Derechos......Page 176
How a Tornado Forms......Page 177
Tornado Measurement & Frequency......Page 178
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones......Page 179
Prediction & the Future......Page 182
The Human Denominator 4: Weather......Page 183
Chapter 4: Review......Page 184
GeoLab4: Stormy Weather: How do you track a midlatitude cyclone on a weather map?......Page 187
5. Water Resources......Page 189
Worldwide Equilibrium......Page 191
The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 192
Actual & Potential Evapotranspiration......Page 193
Applying Water Budget Concepts......Page 195
Surface Water Resources......Page 197
Groundwater Resources......Page 198
High Plains Aquifer Overdraft......Page 201
5.5. Our Water Supply......Page 203
Water Supply in the United States......Page 204
5.6a. Water Scarcity: The Colorado River System Out of Balance......Page 205
Colorado River: Sharing a Scarce Resource......Page 206
Sierra Snowpack: California’s Dwindling Treasure......Page 207
Water Scarcity: A Global Challenge......Page 208
The Human Denominator 5: Water Use......Page 209
Chapter 5: Review......Page 210
GeoLab5: Good to the Last Drop: How do Planners use the Water Budget Concept to meet Community Needs?......Page 213
6. Global Climate Systems......Page 215
Components That Interact to Produce Climate......Page 217
Köppen Climate Classification System......Page 218
6.2. Climate Classification System......Page 221
Tropical Rain Forest Climates......Page 223
Tropical Savanna Climates......Page 224
Humid Subtropical Climates......Page 225
Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates......Page 226
6.5. Microthermal Climates (Midlatitudes & High Latitudes, Cold Winters)......Page 227
Subarctic Climates......Page 228
Tundra Climates......Page 229
Polar Marine Climates......Page 230
6.7. Dry Climates (Permanent Moisture Deficits)......Page 231
Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates......Page 232
The Human Denominator 6: Climate Regions......Page 233
Chapter 6: Review......Page 234
GeoLab6: Industrial Location: Which Location is Optimum?......Page 237
7. Climate Change......Page 239
Methods for Long-Term Climate Reconstruction......Page 241
7.2. Climates of Earth’s Past......Page 243
5 mya: Fluctuating Temperatures......Page 244
Methods for Short-Term Climate Reconstruction......Page 245
Short-Term Climate Trends......Page 246
Solar Variability......Page 247
Earth’s Orbital Cycles......Page 248
Continental Position & Topography......Page 249
Atmospheric Gases & Aerosols......Page 250
Water Vapor Feedback......Page 251
Earth’s Carbon Budget......Page 252
Rising Temperatures......Page 253
Melting Ice......Page 254
Rising Sea Levels......Page 256
Increased Atmospheric Water Vapor......Page 257
Extreme Events......Page 258
Contributions of Greenhouse Gases......Page 259
Factors that Affect Earth’s Energy Balance......Page 261
Radiative Forcing Scenarios......Page 263
Future Temperature Scenarios......Page 264
Possible Climate Futures......Page 265
Weighing the Evidence......Page 267
Taking a Position on Climate Change......Page 268
Climate Change Action: Global, National, & Local......Page 269
Climate Change Action: What Can You Do?......Page 270
The Human Denominator 7: Taking Action on Climate Change......Page 271
Chapter 7: Review......Page 272
GeoLab7: Getting to the Core: Reconstructing Past Climates......Page 275
8. Tectonics, Earthquakes, & Volcanism......Page 277
Absolute Time & Relative Time......Page 279
The Principle of Uniformitarianism......Page 280
Earth’s Mantle......Page 281
Earth’s Lithosphere & Crust......Page 282
Subcycles within the Geologic Cycle......Page 283
Minerals, Rocks, & the Rock Cycle......Page 284
Sedimentary Processes......Page 285
Metamorphic Processes......Page 286
The Theory of Plate Tectonics......Page 287
Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Geomagnetism......Page 289
Subduction Zones......Page 290
Interactions at Plate Boundaries......Page 291
Hot Spots......Page 292
Folding & Broad Warping......Page 293
Faulting......Page 294
Earthquake Intensity & Magnitude......Page 295
Earthquake Prediction......Page 296
Earthquake Hazards & Safety......Page 297
Types of Volcanic Activity......Page 299
Volcanic Features......Page 300
Volcano Hazards & Monitoring......Page 301
Types of Orogenesis......Page 303
The Human Denominator 8: Earth Materials & Plate Tectonics......Page 305
Chapter 8: Review......Page 306
GeoLab8: Life on the Edge: How do Plate Boundaries put Humans at Risk?......Page 309
9. Weathering, Karst Landscapes, & Mass Movement......Page 311
Stable & Unstable Slopes......Page 313
Weathering Processes......Page 314
Frost Action......Page 315
Pressure-Release Jointing......Page 316
Hydration & Hydrolysis......Page 317
Carbonation......Page 318
Formation of Karst......Page 319
Features of Karst Landscapes......Page 320
Mechanisms that Trigger Mass Movements......Page 321
Falls & Avalanches......Page 323
Landslides......Page 324
Creep......Page 325
Human-Induced Mass Movements......Page 326
The Human Denominator 9: Weathering, Karst, & Hillslopes......Page 327
Chapter 9: Review......Page 328
GeoLab9: Seasonal Changes: What is the Role of Latitude in Changing Insolation & day Length?......Page 331
10. River Systems & Landforms......Page 333
Drainage Basins......Page 335
Classifying Drainage Patterns......Page 337
Stream Gradient......Page 339
Base Level......Page 340
Stream Discharge......Page 341
Stream Types......Page 342
How Streams Transport Sediment......Page 343
Deposition of Sediment......Page 344
Features Formed by Stream Erosion......Page 345
Stream Nickpoints......Page 346
Features of Floodplains......Page 347
Other Depositional Features......Page 348
Flood Hazards......Page 349
Rating Floodplain Risk......Page 350
The Human Denominator 10: Rivers, Floodplains, & Deltas......Page 351
Chapter 10: Review......Page 352
GeoLab10: Risky Waters: Determining Flood Risk......Page 355
11. Coastal Systems & Wind Processes......Page 357
Oceans & Seas......Page 359
The Chemistry of Seawater......Page 360
Pollution & Oil Spills......Page 362
Coastal System Components......Page 363
The Coastal Environment & Sea Level......Page 364
Waves......Page 365
Erosional Coastlines......Page 367
Depositional Coastlines......Page 369
Eolian Erosion......Page 371
Eolian Deposition......Page 373
Coral Reefs......Page 375
Coastal Wetlands......Page 376
Storm Surges & Erosion......Page 377
Beach Protection......Page 378
The Human Denominator 11: Oceans, Coasts, & Dunes......Page 379
Chapter 11: Review......Page 380
GeoLab11: Trash Talk: Can We Predict the Pathway & Decomposition of Trash in the Great North Pacific Garbage Patch?......Page 383
12. Glacial & Periglacial Landscapes......Page 385
Alpine Glaciers......Page 387
Continental Glaciers......Page 388
Glacial Mass Balance......Page 389
Glacial Movement......Page 390
Glacial Landforms......Page 391
Landforms Deposited by Glaciers......Page 393
The Geography of Permafrost......Page 395
Periglacial Processes......Page 396
12.6. The Pleistocene Epoch......Page 397
Medieval Warm Period & Little Ice Age......Page 399
Mechanisms of Climate Fluctuation......Page 400
Polar Environments......Page 401
Recent Polar Region Changes......Page 402
The Human Denominator 12: The Cryosphere......Page 403
Chapter 12: Review......Page 404
GeoLab12: Big Relief: Using Topographic Maps to Determine Elevation Profiles......Page 407
13. Ecosystems & Soils......Page 409
What are the Living & Nonliving Components of Ecosystems?......Page 411
Net Primary Productivity......Page 413
Oxygen & Carbon Cycles......Page 415
Nitrogen Cycle......Page 416
13.3. Soil Development & Soil Profiles......Page 417
Natural Soil-Formation Factors......Page 418
Soil Horizons......Page 419
Physical Properties......Page 421
Chemical Properties......Page 422
Energy Pyramids......Page 423
Biological Amplification......Page 424
The Niche Concept......Page 425
Abiotic Influences on Distribution......Page 427
Limiting Factors Affecting Distribution......Page 428
Wildfire & Fire Ecology......Page 429
Terrestrial Succession......Page 430
Aquatic Succession......Page 431
Ecosystem Stability & Resilience......Page 433
Biodiversity on the Decline......Page 434
The Human Denominator 13: Soils & Land Use......Page 437
Chapter 13: Review......Page 438
GeoLab13: Net Primary Productivity......Page 441
14. Terrestrial Biomes......Page 443
Biomes......Page 445
Ecotones......Page 446
Invasive Species......Page 447
Island Biogeography for Species Preservation......Page 448
Soil Taxonomy......Page 449
Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy......Page 451
14.5. Soils: Weathered Forest Soils & Young Soils......Page 453
14.6. Soils: Cold, Volcanic & Organic Matter Soils......Page 455
Tropical Rain Forest......Page 457
Tropical Savanna......Page 462
Midlatitude Broadleaf & Mixed Forest......Page 463
Boreal & Montane Forest......Page 464
Temperate Rain Forest......Page 465
Mediterranean Shrubland......Page 466
Deserts......Page 467
Arctic & Alpine Tundra......Page 469
Anthropogenic Biomes......Page 470
The Human Denominator 14: Anthropogenic Biomes......Page 471
Chapter 14: Review......Page 472
GeoLab14: Global Biomes......Page 475
Appendix: Maps in This Text and Topgraphic Maps......Page 477
Glossary......Page 479
Credits......Page 496
Index......Page 500
Inside Back Cover......Page 516