Geologic Time Scale 2020

Geologic Time Scale 2020
Copyright
Quotes
Contents
Contributors
Editors’ Biographies
Preface
Abbreviations and acronyms
Organizations
Time Scale Publications
Geoscientific concepts
Symbols
Part I Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 The Geologic Time Scale
1.2 A Geologic Time Scale GTS2020
1.2.1 Recent developments
1.2.2 Methods and ages
1.3 How this book is arranged?
1.3.1 Conventions and standards
1.4 Historical overview of geologic time scales
1.4.1 Paleozoic scales
1.4.2 Mesozoic scales
1.4.3 Cenozoic scales
1.5 The World Geologic Time Scale
Bibliography
2 The Chronostratigraphic Scale
2.1 History of geologic stratigraphic standardization
2.2 Stage unit stratotypes
2.3 Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
2.4 Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
2.5 Other considerations for choosing a GSSP
References
Part II Concepts and Methods
3 Evolution and Biostratigraphy
Subchapter 3A Trilobites
3A.1 Earliest trilobites
3A.2 Trilobite phylogeny
3A.3 Trilobite biostratigraphy
Bibliography
Subchapter 3B Graptolites
3B.1 Graptolite construction and relationships
3B.2 Paleogeography, paleoecology, and sedimentology
3B.3 Practicalities and history of study
3B.4 Biostratigraphy
3B.5 Ordovician graptolite evolution and succession
3B.6 Silurian graptolite evolution and succession
Bibliography
Subchapter 3C Chitinozoans
3C.1 Introduction
3C.2 Phylogeny and taxonomy
3C.3 Origin and diversification
3C.4 Applications
Bibliography
Subchapter 3D Conodonts
3D.1 Introduction
3D.2 Biologic affinity
3D.3 Paleoecology and biofacies
3D.4 Biostratigraphy and evolution
3D.5 Cambrian
3D.6 Ordovician
3D.7 Silurian
3D.8 Devonian
3D.9 Carboniferous
3D.10 Permian
3D.11 Triassic
Bibliography
Subchapter 3E Ammonoidea
3E.1 Paleozoic Ammonoidea
Dieter Korn
3E.2 Triassic Ammonoidea
Alistair J. McGowan
3E.3 Orders/Suborders
3E.4 Jurassic Ammonoidea
John Cope
3E.5 Cretaceous Ammonoidea
Christina Ifrim
Bibliography
Subchapter 3F Calcareous nannofossils
3F.1 Introduction
3F.2 Evolution
3F.3 Biostratigraphy—Mesozoic
3F.4 Biostratigraphy—Cenozoic
Bibliography
Subchapter 3G Planktonic foraminifera
3G.1 Introduction
3G.2 Jurassic
3G.3 Cretaceous
3G.4 Cenozoic
Bibliography
Subchapter 3H Larger benthic foraminifera
3H.1 Introduction
3H.2 Key groups of larger benthic foraminifera
3H.2.1 Textulariids
3H.2.2 Fusulinids
3H.2.3 Involutinids
3H.2.4 Miliolids
3H.2.5 Rotaliids
3H.3 Late Paleozoic LBF Biostratigraphy
3H.4 Triassic LBF Biostratigraphy
3H.5 Jurassic LBF Biostratigraphy
3H.6 Cretaceous LBF Biostratigraphy
3H.7 Cenozoic LBF Biostratigraphy
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Subchapter 3I Dinoflagellates
3I.1 Dinoflagellates as organisms
3I.2 Dinoflagellates as fossils
3I.3 Evolution of dinoflagellates
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Subchapter 3J Plants, spores, and pollen
3J.1 The Precambrian
3J.2 Paleozoic
3J.3 Mesozoic
3J.4 Cenozoic
3J.5 Final remarks
Bibliography
Subchapter 3K Cretaceous microcrinoids
Bibliography
Subchapter 3L Three major mass extinctions and evolutionary radiations in their aftermath
3L.1 Introduction
3L.2 The Late Ordovician mass extinction
3L.2.1 The earliest of the “Big Five”
3L.3 End-Permian mass extinction
3L.3.1 The greatest of the “Big Five”
3L.4 End-Cretaceous mass extinction
3L.4.1 The latest of the “Big Five”
3L.5 Concluding remarks
Bibliography
4 Astrochronology
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Historical introduction
4.1.2 The astronomical solution
4.2 Eccentricity
4.2.1 Decomposition of the eccentricity
4.2.2 Mathematical intermezzo
4.2.3 Eccentricity modulations
4.3 Chaos in the solar system
4.3.1 Drifting frequencies
4.3.2 The 405-kyr g2−g5 metronome
4.3.3 The g4−g3 2.4Myr cycle
4.4 Inclination and obliquity
4.4.1 Simplified expressions
4.4.2 Tidal evolution
4.4.3 Obliquity solution
4.4.4 The 173-kyr s3−s6 metronome
4.5 Chaotic diffusion and secular resonances
4.6 Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale
5.1 Principles
5.1.1 Magnetic field reversals and magnetostratigraphy
5.1.2 Marine magnetic anomaly patterns
5.1.3 Events, excursions, magnetic anomaly wiggles, and cryptochrons
5.2 Late Cretaceous through Cenozoic geomagnetic polarity time scale
5.2.1 C-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies and chron nomenclature
5.2.2 Calibration and ages of the Late Cretaceous through Cenozoic geomagnetic polarity time scale
5.2.3 Implications of C-sequence age model for South Atlantic spreading history
5.3 Middle Jurassic through Early Cretaceous geomagnetic polarity time scale
5.3.1 M-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies
5.3.2 Extension to M-sequence from deep-tow magnetometer surveys
5.3.3 Composite M-sequence
5.3.4 Constraints on age models and spreading rates for the composite M-sequence model
5.3.4.1 Spline fit procedure for Early Cretaceous M-sequence age model
5.3.4.2 Spline fit version 1 to only selected radioisotopic dates would imply a near constant spreading rate during the Tit...
5.3.4.3 Spline fit version 2 incorporating astronomically tuned duration of Berriasian through Barremian stage (the GTS2020...
5.3.5 GTS2020 age model for the composite M-sequence and implied spreading rates
5.4 Geomagnetic polarity time scale for Early Jurassic and older rocks
5.5 Summary
Bibliography
6 Radioisotope Geochronology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 U–Pb geochronology
6.2.1 Chemical abrasion
6.2.2 Isotope tracers and standards
6.2.3 Decay constants and natural ratios
6.2.4 Petrochronology
6.3 40Ar/39Ar geochronology
6.3.1 Technical innovations
6.3.2 Analytical and systematic sources of uncertainty
6.3.3 40K decay constants
6.3.4 The isotopic composition and age of standard minerals and their intercalibration
6.3.5 Ongoing challenges and prospects
6.3.6 Recalibrating published 40Ar/39Ar dates from standard age used in the literature
6.4 Re–Os geochronology
6.4.1 Improved chemical extraction and purification techniques
6.4.2 Decay constant values
6.4.3 Standardization of reference materials
6.4.4 Re–Os data-reduction procedures
6.5 Application of radioisotope geochronology in the stratigraphic record
6.5.1 Systematic error propagation
6.5.2 Treatment of legacy
6.5.3 Bayesian age models in deep time
6.6 Conclusion
Bibliography
7 Strontium Isotope Stratigraphy
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methodologies for Sr-isotope stratigraphy
7.2.1 Limits to Sr-isotope stratigraphy?
7.2.2 Materials for Sr-isotope stratigraphy
7.2.3 Assessment of sample quality
7.2.4 Sample preparation
7.2.5 Sample analysis
7.2.6 Sample size
7.2.7 Standards
7.2.8 Interlaboratory bias
7.2.9 Rubidium contamination
7.3 The databases used in this volume
7.4 Numerical ages
7.5 Fitting the LOESS database
7.6 The quality of the fit
7.6.1 Confidence limits on the LOESS fit
7.6.2 Confidence limits on measured 87Sr/86Sr
7.6.3 Numerical resolution of the fitted curve
7.7 Comments on the LOESS fit
7.7.1 Pliocene to Recent
7.7.2 Miocene
7.7.3 Oligocene/Early Miocene
7.7.4 Paleogene
7.7.5 Maastrichtian
7.7.6 Campanian–Cenomanian
7.7.7 Aptian–Albian
7.7.8 Jurassic
7.7.9 Triassic–Jurassic boundary
7.7.10 Permo–Triassic boundary and Early Triassic
7.7.11 Permian
7.7.12 Carboniferous
7.7.13 Devonian
7.7.14 Silurian
7.7.15 Ordovician
7.7.16 Data gaps
7.8 Sr-isotope stratigraphy for pre-Ordovician time
Bibliography
8 Osmium Isotope Stratigraphy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Untapped potential
8.3 Hydrogenic Fe–Mn crusts
8.4 Organic-rich mudrock
8.5 Re–Os isochrons and (187Os/188Os)0 profiles
8.6 Pre-Phanerozoic changes in seawater 187Os/188Os
8.7 Higher resolution 187Os/188Os Phanerozoic records
8.8 Integrating organic-rich mudrock and oxic pelagic sediment 187Os/188Os records
Bibliography
9 Sulfur Isotope Stratigraphy
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Mechanisms driving the variation in the S isotope record
9.3 Isotopic fractionation of sulfur
9.4 Measurement and materials for sulfur isotope stratigraphy
9.4.1 Isotope analyses
9.4.2 Materials for S isotope analysis
9.4.2.1 Evaporites
9.4.2.2 Barite
9.4.2.3 Substituted sulfate in carbonates
9.5 A Geologic time scale database
9.5.1 General trends
9.5.2 Time boundaries
9.5.3 Age resolution
9.5.4 Specific age intervals
9.5.4.1 Cambrian
9.5.4.2 Ordovician
9.5.4.3 Silurian
9.5.4.4 Devonian
9.5.4.5 Carboniferous
9.5.4.6 Permian
9.5.4.7 Triassic
9.5.4.8 Jurassic
9.5.4.9 Cretaceous
9.5.4.10 Cenozoic
9.6 A database of S isotope values and their ages for the past 130Myr using LOWESS regression
9.7 Use of S isotopes for correlation
Bibliography
10 Oxygen Isotope Stratigraphy
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Methodology
10.3 Application principles and considerations
10.3.1 Principles
10.3.2 Sample materials
10.4 Oxygen isotope stratigraphy
10.4.1 Cenozoic
10.4.2 Mesozoic
10.4.3 Paleozoic
10.4.3.1 Brachiopod shells
10.4.3.2 Conodonts
10.4.4 Archean and Proterozoic
10.5 Summation
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Appendices
11 Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Methodology
11.2.1 Analytical methodology
11.2.2 Carbonate carbon versus organic carbon
11.3 Application principles and considerations
11.3.1 Principles
11.3.2 Spatial heterogeneity of dissolved inorganic carbon
11.3.3 Global versus local water mass signals
11.4 Materials and methods
11.4.1 Bulk versus component
11.4.2 Diagenesis
11.5 Chronostratigraphic correlation and excursions
11.5.1 Chronostratigraphic procedures
11.5.2 Integration with biostratigraphy
11.5.3 The δ13C composite
11.6 Causes of carbon isotope excursions
11.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
12 Influence of Large Igneous Provinces
12.1 Large Igneous Provinces
12.2 Influence on environment
12.3 Correlation with Phanerozoic time scale boundaries
12.4 Implications for natural boundaries in the Precambrian
12.5 Additional important Proterozoic Large Igneous Provinces
12.6 Large Igneous Provinces volume and extent of environmental effects
12.7 Future work
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
13 Phanerozoic Eustasy
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The sequence stratigraphy paradigm and eustasy
13.2.1 Sequence stratigraphy
13.2.2 Synchronous sea-level change
13.2.3 Challenges in recognizing sea-level change and the eustatic signal
13.3 Anatomy of eustatic variations
13.3.1 The magnitude, rate, and duration of eustatic cycles
13.3.2 Long-term eustasy
13.3.2.1 Drivers
13.3.2.2 Magnitude
13.3.3 Short-term eustasy
13.3.3.1 Drivers
13.3.3.2 Magnitudes
13.3.3.2.1 Backstripping
13.3.3.2.2 Oxygen isotope records
13.3.3.2.3 Geological synthesis
13.3.3.3 Rate and duration
13.3.3.4 Determining a model for short-term eustasy
13.4 Phanerozoic eustasy: a review
13.4.1 Major syntheses
13.4.1.1 Cambrian
13.4.1.2 Ordovician
13.4.1.3 Silurian
13.4.1.4 Devonian
13.4.1.5 Carboniferous
13.4.1.6 Permian
13.4.1.7 Triassic
13.4.1.8 Jurassic
13.4.1.9 Cretaceous
13.4.1.10 Cenozoic
13.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
14 Geomathematics
SubChapter 14A Geomathematical and Statistical Procedures
14A.1 History
14A.1.1 The chronogram method
14A.1.2 The McKerrow method
14A.2 Spline fitting in GTS2004
14A.2.1 Incorporation of stratigraphic uncertainty
14A.2.2 Smoothing splines
14A.2.3 Treatment of outliers
14A.2.4 Ages of zonal boundaries
14A.3 Modifications in GTS2012
14A.3.1 Bootstrap splines
14A.3.2 Monotonicity
14A.3.3 Multipeaked BChron confidence intervals
14A.3.4 Silver spikes
14A.3.5 Revised Devonian Spline
14A.4 Statistical distribution of age determinations along the geologic time scale
14A.4.1 Power-law models
14A.4.2 Hot spot analysis
14A.4.3 Clustering of ash beds
14A.5 Modifications in GTS2020
14A.5.1 Combining dates at the same stratigraphic level
14A.5.2 Smoothing splines
14A.5.3 Application to the Ordovician–Silurian
14A.5.4 Application to the Devonian
14A.5.5 New approximate Devonian 95% confidence interval
14A.5.6 Application to the Carboniferous–Permian
14A.5.7 Application to the Early Cretaceous
14A.5.8 Application to the Late Cretaceous
Bibliography
SubChapter 14B Global Composite Sections and Constrained Optimization
14B.1 The geologic time scale challenge
14B.1.1 Scope of the task
14B.1.2 Incomplete parochial records
14B.1.3 Optimized global composite sections
14B.1.4 Two nested optimizations
14B.2 Constrained optimization of a composite section
14B.2.1 Data classes
14B.2.2 Constraints
14B.2.3 Line of correlation
14B.2.4 Objective function
14B.2.5 Simulated annealing
14B.3 Projecting the composite sequence onto a time scale
14B.3.1 From an ordinal to an interval composite sequence scale
14B.3.2 From a proxy interval scale to a time-scaled section
14B.3.3 Locating zone and stage boundaries
14B.4 Slotting composite sections
14B.5 Technical information
Bibliography
Part III Geologic Periods: Planetary and Precambrian
15 The Planetary Time Scale
15.1 Introduction and methodologies
15.2 Time scales
15.2.1 Earth’s moon
15.2.1.1 Pre-Nectarian Period
15.2.1.2 Nectarian Period
15.2.1.3 Early Imbrian Epoch
15.2.1.4 Late Imbrian Epoch
15.2.1.5 Eratosthenian Period
15.2.1.6 Copernican Period
15.2.2 Mars
15.2.2.1 Pre-Noachian Period
15.2.2.2 Early Noachian Epoch
15.2.2.3 Middle Noachian Epoch
15.2.2.4 Late Noachian Epoch
15.2.2.5 Early Hesperian Epoch
15.2.2.6 Late Hesperian Epoch
15.2.2.7 Early Amazonian Epoch
15.2.2.8 Middle Amazonian Epoch
15.2.2.9 Late Amazonian Epoch
15.2.3 Mercury
15.2.4 Venus
15.2.5 Other cratered bodies
15.2.5.1 Jupiter’s moons
15.2.5.1.1 Io
15.2.5.1.2 Europa
15.2.5.1.3 Ganymede
15.2.5.1.4 Callisto
15.2.5.2 Saturn’s moons
15.2.5.2.1 Dione
15.2.5.2.2 Tethys
15.2.5.2.3 Enceladus
15.2.5.2.4 Titan
15.2.5.3 Asteroids
15.2.5.3.1 Vesta
15.2.5.3.2 Ceres
15.2.5.4 Comets
Bibliography
16 Precambrian (4.56–1Ga)
16.1 International subdivisions
16.2 Hadean
16.3 Archean Eon
16.4 Proterozoic Eon
16.4.1 Paleoproterozoic Era (2.5–1.6Ga)
16.4.2 Mesoproterozoic Era (1.6–1.0Ga)
16.5 Isotopic and geochemical tracers of Precambrian evolution
16.6 Implications of recent findings for subdivision of the Precambrian time scale
Acknowledgement
References
17 The Tonian and Cryogenian Periods
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Historical background
17.3 Geochronological constraints on the Tonian and Cryogenian Periods
17.3.1 Radioisotopic age constraints on the Tonian Period
17.3.2 Radioisotopic age constraints on the Tonian–Cryogenian boundary
17.3.3 Radioisotopic age constraints on early Cryogenian (Sturtian) glaciation
17.3.4 Radioisotopic age constraints on the middle Cryogenian (nonglacial interval)
17.3.5 Radioisotopic age constraints on the end Cryogenian (Marinoan) glaciation and Cryogenian–Ediacaran boundary
17.4 Biostratigraphy
17.4.1 Biostratigraphy of the Tonian Period
17.4.2 Biostratigraphy of the Cryogenian Period
17.5 Chemostratigraphy
17.5.1 Chemostratigraphy of the Tonian Period
17.5.2 Chemostratigraphy of the Cryogenian Period
17.6 Paleogeographic context
17.7 Tonian–Cryogenian Earth system evolution
17.8 Formalization and potential subdivision of the Tonian and Cryogenian Periods
17.8.1 The base of the Cryogenian Period
17.8.2 Subdivision of the Cryogenian Period
17.8.3 Subdivision of the Tonian period
Bibliography
18 The Ediacaran Period
18.1 Historical background
18.2 Cap dolostones and the base of the Ediacaran System
18.3 The biostratigraphic basis for the Ediacaran System
18.3.1 Ediacaran megafossils and trace fossils
18.3.2 Ediacaran microfossils
18.3.3 Ediacaran glaciations
18.3.4 Chemical evolution of Ediacaran oceans
18.3.4.1 Carbon isotopes
18.3.4.2 Strontium isotopes
18.3.4.3 Sulfur isotopes
18.3.4.4 Redox proxies
18.3.5 Radioisotopic dating
18.4 Toward an Ediacaran chronostratigraphy
Acknowledgments
References
Part IV Phanerozoic
19 The Cambrian Period
19.1 History and subdivisions
19.1.1 Terreneuvian Series
19.1.1.1 Fortunian Stage and the base of the Cambrian System
19.1.1.2 Stage 2 (undefined)
19.1.2 Series 2 (undefined)
19.1.2.1 Stage 3 (undefined)
19.1.2.2 Stage 4 (undefined)
19.1.3 Miaolingian Series
19.1.3.1 Wuliuan Stage
19.1.3.2 Drumian Stage
19.1.3.3 Guzhangian Stage
19.1.4 Furongian Series
19.1.4.1 Paibian Stage
19.1.4.2 Jiangshanian Stage
19.1.4.3 Stage 10 (undefined)
19.1.5 Regional Cambrian stage suites
19.1.5.1 Cambrian Stages of South China
19.1.5.1.1 Jinningian
19.1.5.1.2 Meishucunian
19.1.5.1.3 Nangaoan
19.1.5.1.4 Duyunian
19.1.5.1.5 Wuliuan
19.1.5.1.6 Wangcunian
19.1.5.1.7 Guzhangian
19.1.5.1.8 Paibian
19.1.5.1.9 Jiangshanian
19.1.5.1.10 Niuchehean
19.1.5.2 Australian Cambrian Stages
19.1.5.2.1 Pre-Ordian
19.1.5.2.2 Ordian
19.1.5.2.3 Templetonian
19.1.5.2.4 Floran
19.1.5.2.5 Undillan
19.1.5.2.6 Boomerangian
19.1.5.2.7 Mindyallan
19.1.5.2.8 Idamean
19.1.5.2.9 Iverian
19.1.5.2.10 Payntonian
19.1.5.2.11 Datsonian
19.1.5.2.12 Warendan
19.1.5.3 Siberian Cambrian Stages
19.1.5.3.1 Nemakit-Daldynian
19.1.5.3.2 Tommotian
19.1.5.3.3 Atdabanian
19.1.5.3.4 Botoman
19.1.5.3.5 Toyonian
19.1.5.3.6 Amgan
19.1.5.3.7 Mayan
19.1.5.3.8 Kulyumbean
19.1.5.3.9 Gorbiyachinian
19.1.5.3.10 Tukalandian
19.1.5.3.11 Khantaian
19.1.5.4 Laurentian Cambrian Stages
19.1.5.4.1 Montezuman
19.1.5.4.2 Dyeran
19.1.5.4.3 Delamaran
19.1.5.4.4 Topazan
19.1.5.4.5 Marjuman
19.1.5.4.6 Steptoean
19.1.5.4.7 Sunwaptan
19.1.5.4.8 Skullrockian
19.1.5.5 Baltica Cambrian “Stages” and Biostratigraphy
19.1.5.5.1 Terreneuvian and Series 2
19.1.5.5.2 Miaolingian
19.1.5.5.3 Furongian
19.2 Cambrian Stratigraphy
19.2.1 Faunal provinces
19.2.2 Trilobite zones
19.2.3 Archaeocyathan zones
19.2.4 Small shelly fossil zones
19.2.5 Conodont zones
19.2.6 Magnetostratigraphy
19.2.7 Chemostratigraphy
19.2.8 Sequence stratigraphy
19.2.9 Cambrian evolutionary events
19.3 Cambrian Time Scale
19.3.1 Age of the Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary
19.3.2 Age of Internal Boundaries
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
20 The Ordovician Period
20.1 History and subdivisions
20.1.1 Stages of the Lower Ordovician
20.1.1.1 The Cambrian–Ordovician Boundary and the Tremadocian Stage
20.1.1.2 The Floian Stage
20.1.2 Stages of the Middle Ordovician
20.1.2.1 The Dapingian Stage
20.1.2.2 The Darriwilian Stage
20.1.3 Stages of the Upper Ordovician
20.1.3.1 The Sandbian Stage
20.1.3.2 The Katian Stage
20.1.3.3 The Hirnantian Stage
20.2 Regional subdivisions
20.2.1 Australasian chronostratigraphic units
20.2.2 East Baltic chronostratigraphic units
20.2.3 Bohemo-Iberian chronostratigraphic units
20.2.4 North and South China chronostratigraphic units
20.2.5 North American chronostratigraphic units
20.2.6 Ordovician stage slices
20.3 Ordovician stratigraphy
20.3.1 Biostratigraphy
20.3.1.1 Graptolite zones
20.3.1.2 Conodont zones
20.3.1.3 Chitinozoan zones
20.3.1.4 Integration of graptolite, conodont, and chitinozoan zones
20.3.2 Chemostratigraphy
20.3.2.1 Carbon isotope stratigraphy
20.3.2.2 Paired carbon isotopes
20.3.2.3 Strontium isotope stratigraphy
20.3.2.4 Oxygen isotope stratigraphy
20.3.3 Cyclostratigraphy
20.3.4 Biotic and climatic events
20.4 Ordovician time scale
20.4.1 Radioisotopic dates
20.4.2 Building the Ordovician and Silurian Composite Standard
20.4.2.1 Calibration of zone and stage boundaries by composite standard optimization
20.4.2.2 Uncertainty in the composite standard sequence
20.4.3 Age of stage boundaries
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
21 The Silurian Period
21.1 History and subdivisions
21.1.1 Llandovery Series
21.1.1.1 Rhuddanian Stage
21.1.1.2 Aeronian Stage
21.1.1.3 Telychian Stage
21.1.2 Wenlock Series
21.1.2.1 Sheinwoodian Stage
21.1.2.2 Homerian Stage
21.1.3 Ludlow Series
21.1.3.1 Gorstian Stage
21.1.3.2 Ludfordian Stage
21.1.4 Pridoli Series
21.1.5 Regional stage classifications
21.1.6 Silurian stage slices
21.2 Silurian Stratigraphy
21.2.1 Biostratigraphy
21.2.1.1 Graptolite zones
21.2.1.2 Conodont zones
21.2.1.3 Chitinozoan zones
21.2.1.4 Other zonal groups
21.2.2 Magnetostratigraphy
21.2.3 Chemostratigraphy
21.2.3.1 Carbon-isotope stratigraphy
21.2.3.2 Oxygen-isotope stratigraphy
21.2.3.3 Strontium isotope stratigraphy
21.2.4 Eustasy
21.2.5 Climatic events
21.2.6 Volcanism and K-bentonite stratigraphy
21.2.7 Astrochronology
21.3 Silurian time scale
21.3.1 Radioisotopic dates
21.3.2 Ages of stage boundaries
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
22 The Devonian Period
22.1 History and chronostratigraphic subdivisions
22.1.1 Lower Devonian Series
22.1.1.1 Lochkovian
22.1.1.2 Pragian
22.1.1.3 Emsian
22.1.2 Middle Devonian Series
22.1.2.1 Eifelian
22.1.2.2 Givetian
22.1.3 Upper Devonian Series
22.1.3.1 Frasnian
22.1.3.2 Famennian
22.1.3.3 Base of the Carboniferous
22.2 Devonian stratigraphy
22.2.1 Biostratigraphy
22.2.1.1 Conodont zonations
22.2.1.2 Ammonoid zonations
22.2.1.3 Graptolite zonations
22.2.1.4 Dacryoconarid zonations
22.2.1.5 Ostracod zonations
22.2.1.6 Radiolarian zonations
22.2.1.7 Miospore zonations
22.2.1.8 Acritarch zonation
22.2.1.9 Chitinozoan zonation
22.2.1.10 Plant megafossil zonation
22.2.1.11 Vertebrate zonations
22.2.2 Physical and chemical stratigraphy
22.2.2.1 Global event stratigraphy
22.2.2.2 Sequence stratigraphy/eustatic changes
22.2.2.3 Stable isotope stratigraphy
22.2.2.4 Organic geochemistry stratigraphy
22.2.2.5 Inorganic geochemistry stratigraphy
22.2.2.6 Cyclostratigraphy
22.2.2.7 Magnetic susceptibility
22.2.2.8 (Classical) Magnetostratigraphy
22.2.2.9 Gamma-ray spectroscopy
22.3 Devonian time scale
22.3.1 Previous scales
22.3.2 Zonal scaling and biostratigraphic comments on the radioisotopic dates
22.3.3 Radioisotopic data
22.3.4 Age of stage boundaries
Bibliography
23 The Carboniferous Period
23.1 History and subdivisions
23.1.1 Mississippian Subsystem (Lower Carboniferous)
23.1.1.1 Tournaisian Stage and the base of the Carboniferous System
23.1.1.2 Visean Stage
23.1.1.3 Serpukhovian Stage
23.1.2 Pennsylvanian Subsystem (Upper Carboniferous)
23.1.2.1 Bashkirian Stage and the Mid-Carboniferous Boundary
23.1.2.2 Moscovian Stage
23.1.2.3 Kasimovian Stage
23.1.2.4 Gzhelian Stage
23.1.3 Regional Carboniferous subsystem, stage, and substage units
23.1.3.1 Western European Subdivisions
23.1.3.2 Eastern European Subdivisions
23.1.3.3 North American Subdivisions
23.1.3.4 Chinese Subdivisions
23.1.3.5 Gondwana
23.1.3.5.1 Southwestern and northwestern Gondwana
23.1.3.5.2 Eastern Gondwana
23.2 Carboniferous stratigraphy
23.2.1 Biostratigraphy
23.2.1.1 Marine realm
23.2.1.2 Continental realm
23.2.2 Magnetostratigraphy
23.2.3 Chemostratigraphy
23.2.4 Sequence stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy
23.2.5 Physical stratigraphy: further tools
23.2.6 Paleoclimate and global correlation
23.3 Carboniferous time scale
23.3.1 Previous scales
23.3.2 Radioisotopic dates
23.3.3 Carboniferous and Permian composite standard
23.3.4 Ages of stage boundaries
Bibliography
24 The Permian Period
24.1 History and subdivisions
24.1.1 The Cisuralian Series: Lower Permian
24.1.1.1 Asselian
24.1.1.2 Sakmarian
24.1.1.3 Artinskian
24.1.1.4 Kungurian
24.1.2 The Guadalupian Series: Middle Permian
24.1.2.1 Roadian
24.1.2.2 Wordian
24.1.2.3 Capitanian
24.1.3 The Lopingian Series: Upper Permian
24.1.3.1 Wuchiapingian
24.1.3.2 Changhsingian
24.1.3.3 Permian–Triassic boundary (Top Lopingian)
24.2 Regional correlations
24.2.1 Russian platform
24.2.2 United States (West Texas)
24.2.3 South China
24.2.4 Western Europe (Germanic Basin)
24.2.5 Salt Range
24.2.6 Pamirs
24.3 Permian stratigraphy
24.3.1 Biostratigraphy
24.3.1.1 Conodont zonation
24.3.1.2 Fusulinacean zonation
24.3.2 Physical stratigraphy
24.3.2.1 Cyclostratigraphy
24.3.2.2 The Illawarra geomagnetic polarity reversal
24.3.2.3 Geochemistry
24.4 Permian time scale
24.4.1 Previous scales
24.4.2 Radioisotopic dates
24.4.3 Permian composite standard
24.4.4 Age of stage boundaries
Bibliography
25 The Triassic Period
25.1 History and subdivisions
25.1.1 The Permian–Triassic Boundary
25.1.1.1 End-Permian ecological catastrophes and defining the base of the Mesozoic
25.1.1.2 Paleozoic–Mesozoic boundary stratotype (base of Triassic)
25.1.2 Subdivisions of the Lower Triassic
25.1.2.1 Induan
25.1.2.1.1 Griesbachian and Dienerian substages
25.1.2.2 Olenekian
25.1.2.2.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype candidates
25.1.2.2.2 Smithian and Spathian substages
25.1.3 Subdivisions of the Middle Triassic
25.1.3.1 Anisian
25.1.3.1.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype candidates
25.1.3.1.2 Anisian substages
25.1.3.2 Ladinian
25.1.3.2.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype candidates
25.1.3.2.2 Ladinian substages
25.1.4 Subdivisions of the Upper Triassic
25.1.4.1 Carnian
25.1.4.1.1 History, revised definition, and boundary stratotype candidates
25.1.4.1.2 Carnian substages and wet intermezzo
25.1.4.2 Norian
25.1.4.2.1 History, revised definition, and boundary stratotype candidates
25.1.4.2.2 Norian substages
25.1.4.3 Rhaetian
25.2 Triassic stratigraphy
25.2.1 Marine biostratigraphy
25.2.1.1 Ammonoids
25.2.1.2 Conodonts
25.2.1.3 Bivalves
25.2.1.4 Radiolarians
25.2.1.5 Other microfossils
25.2.1.6 Reefs
25.2.1.7 Marine reptiles
25.2.2 Terrestrial biostratigraphy
25.2.2.1 Tetrapods and dinosaurs
25.2.2.2 Conchostracans (now renamed as Spinicaudata)
25.2.2.3 Plants, pollen, and spores
25.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
25.2.3.1 Magnetostratigraphy
25.2.3.1.1 Early Triassic magnetic polarity scales
25.2.3.1.2 Middle Triassic magnetic polarity scales
25.2.3.1.3 Late Triassic magnetic polarity scales
25.2.3.2 Chemical stratigraphy
25.2.3.2.1 Carbon-isotope trends and major excursions
25.2.3.2.2 Oxygen isotopes and temperature excursions and trends
25.2.3.2.3 Sulfur-isotope trends and excursions
25.2.3.2.4 Strontium and osmium-isotope trends and excursions
25.2.3.3 Cycle stratigraphy
25.2.3.4 Sequence stratigraphy
25.2.3.5 Other major stratigraphic events
25.2.3.5.1 Large igneous provinces
25.2.3.5.2 Major bolide impacts
25.3 Triassic time scale
25.3.1 Overview
25.3.2 Early Triassic through Anisian age model
25.3.3 Ladinian through Carnian age model
25.3.4 Norian through Rhaetian age model
25.3.5 Estimated uncertainties and future enhancements of Triassic age model
25.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
26 The Jurassic Period
26.1 History and subdivisions
26.1.1 Overview of Jurassic
26.1.2 Subdivisions of the Lower Jurassic
26.1.2.1 Triassic–Jurassic Boundary
26.1.2.2 Hettangian
26.1.2.3 Sinemurian
26.1.2.3.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.2.3.2 Upper Sinemurian substage
26.1.2.4 Pliensbachian
26.1.2.4.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.2.4.2 Upper Pliensbachian substage
26.1.2.5 Toarcian
26.1.2.5.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.2.5.2 Toarcian substages
26.1.3 Subdivisions of the Middle Jurassic
26.1.3.1 Aalenian
26.1.3.1.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.3.1.2 Middle and Upper Aalenian substages
26.1.3.2 Bajocian
26.1.3.2.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.3.2.2 Upper Bajocian substage
26.1.3.3 Bathonian
26.1.3.3.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.3.3.2 Middle and Upper Bathonian substages
26.1.3.4 Callovian
26.1.3.4.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.3.4.2 Middle and Upper Callovian substages
26.1.4 Subdivisions of the Upper Jurassic
26.1.4.1 Oxfordian
26.1.4.1.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.4.1.2 Middle and Upper Oxfordian substages
26.1.4.2 Kimmeridgian
26.1.4.2.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.4.2.2 Upper Kimmeridgian substage
26.1.4.3 Tithonian
26.1.4.3.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
26.1.4.3.2 Upper Tithonian substage
26.1.4.3.3 Bolonian–Portlandian and Volgian regional stages of Europe
26.1.4.3.4 Top of Tithonian (base of Cretaceous)
26.2 Jurassic stratigraphy
26.2.1 Marine biostratigraphy
26.2.1.1 Ammonites
26.2.1.2 Fish and marine reptiles
26.2.1.3 Other marine macrofauna
26.2.1.4 Foraminifers and calpionellids
26.2.1.5 Calcareous nannofossils
26.2.1.6 Dinoflagellate cysts
26.2.1.7 Radiolarians
26.2.2 Terrestrial biostratigraphy
26.2.2.1 Dinosaurs
26.2.2.2 Plants, pollen, and spores
26.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
26.2.3.1 Magnetostratigraphy
26.2.3.1.1 Early Jurassic through Aalenian magnetic polarity scale
26.2.3.1.2 M-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies and Bajocian through Late Jurassic magnetic polarity scale
26.2.3.2 Geochemical stratigraphy
26.2.3.2.1 Carbon isotopes
26.2.3.2.2 Oxygen-stable isotopes and other climate proxies
26.2.3.2.3 Strontium and Osmium isotope ratios
26.2.3.3 Cyclostratigraphy
26.2.3.3.1 Early and Middle Jurassic cycle stratigraphy
26.2.3.3.1.1 Hettangian
26.2.3.3.1.2 Sinemurian
26.2.3.3.1.3 Pliensbachian
26.2.3.3.1.4 Toarcian
26.2.3.3.1.5 Aalenian
26.2.3.3.1.6 Bajocian–Callovian
26.2.3.3.2 Late Jurassic cycle stratigraphy
26.2.3.3.2.1 Oxfordian
26.2.3.3.2.2 Kimmeridgian–Tithonian
26.2.3.4 Sequence stratigraphy
26.2.3.5 Other major stratigraphic events
26.2.3.5.1 Large igneous provinces
26.2.3.5.1.1 Central Atlantic Magmatic province
26.2.3.5.1.2 Karoo–Ferrar
26.2.3.5.2 Major bolide impacts
26.3 Jurassic time scale
26.3.1 Constraints from radioisotopic dates
26.3.2 Jurassic age model
26.3.2.1 Early Jurassic through base Bajocian—cyclostratigraphy scaling combined with radioisotopic dates
26.3.2.1.1 Hettangian
26.3.2.1.2 Sinemurian
26.3.2.1.3 Pliensbachian
26.3.2.1.4 Toarcian
26.3.2.1.5 Aalenian
26.3.2.1.6 Bajocian
26.3.2.2 Base Bathonian through Late Jurassic—Calibration to Pacific spreading rate model
26.3.2.2.1 Bathonian
26.3.2.2.2 Callovian
26.3.2.2.3 Oxfordian
26.3.2.2.4 Kimmeridgian
26.3.2.2.5 Tithonian
26.3.3 Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
27 The Cretaceous Period
27.1 History and subdivisions
27.1.1 Subdivisions of the Lower Cretaceous
27.1.1.1 The Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary and the Berriasian Stage
27.1.1.1.1 Portlandian–Purbeckian and Volgian–Ryazanian
27.1.1.1.2 Berriasian substages
27.1.1.2 Valanginian
27.1.1.2.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.1.2.2 Upper Valanginian substage
27.1.1.3 Hauterivian
27.1.1.3.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.1.3.2 Upper Hauterivian substage
27.1.1.4 Barremian
27.1.1.4.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.1.4.2 Upper Barremian substage
27.1.1.5 Aptian
27.1.1.5.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.1.5.2 Substages of Aptian
27.1.1.6 Albian
27.1.1.6.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.1.6.2 Substages of Albian
27.1.2 Subdivisions of the Upper Cretaceous
27.1.2.1 Cenomanian
27.1.2.1.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.2.1.2 Substages of Cenomanian
27.1.2.2 Turonian
27.1.2.2.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.2.2.2 Substages of Turonian
27.1.2.3 Coniacian
27.1.2.3.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.2.3.2 Substages of Coniacian
27.1.2.4 Santonian
27.1.2.4.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.2.4.2 Substages of Santonian
27.1.2.5 Campanian
27.1.2.5.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.2.5.2 Substages of Campanian
27.1.2.6 Maastrichtian
27.1.2.6.1 History, definition, and boundary stratotype
27.1.2.6.2 Upper Maastrichtian substage
27.2 Cretaceous stratigraphy
27.2.1 Marine biostratigraphy
27.2.1.1 Ammonites
27.2.1.2 Inoceramid bivalves
27.2.1.2.1 Planktonic microcrinoids
27.2.1.2.2 Other marine macrofauna
27.2.1.2.3 Planktonic foraminifera
27.2.1.2.4 Benthonic foraminifera and calpionellids
27.2.1.2.5 Calcareous nannofossils
27.2.1.2.6 Organic and siliceous microfossils
27.2.2 Terrestrial biostratigraphy
27.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
27.2.3.1 Magnetostratigraphy
27.2.3.1.1 Cretaceous portion of M-sequence
27.2.3.1.2 Reported brief subchrons within Aptian and Albian
27.2.3.1.3 Cretaceous portion of C-sequence
27.2.3.2 Geochemical stratigraphy
27.2.3.2.1 Carbon stable isotopes and carbon-enrichment episodes
27.2.3.2.2 Oxygen stable isotopes and other climate proxies
27.2.3.2.3 Strontium and osmium isotope ratios
27.2.3.3 Cyclostratigraphy
27.2.3.3.1 Berriasian–Barremian Stages
27.2.3.3.2 Aptian–Aptian Stages
27.2.3.3.3 Cenomanian–Turonian Stages
27.2.3.3.4 Coniacian–Santonian Stages
27.2.3.3.5 Campanian and Maastrichtian Stages
27.2.3.4 Sequence stratigraphy
27.2.3.5 Other major stratigraphic events
27.2.3.5.1 Large igneous provinces
27.2.3.5.2 Major bolide impacts
27.3 Cretaceous time scale
27.3.1 Previous scales
27.3.1.1 Constraints from radioisotopic dates used in GTS2012
27.3.1.2 Direct spline-fitting of radioisotopic date suite as used in GTS2012
27.3.1.3 Cretaceous age model used in GTS2012
27.3.2 Cretaceous numerical age model of GTS2020
27.3.2.1 Age of stage boundaries
Bibliography
28 The Paleogene Period
28.1 History and subdivisions
28.1.1 Overview of the Paleogene
28.1.2 Danian
28.1.2.1 Historical overview
28.1.2.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.3 Selandian
28.1.3.1 Historical overview
28.1.3.1.1 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.4 Thanetian
28.1.4.1 Historical overview
28.1.4.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.5 Ypresian
28.1.5.1 Historical overview
28.1.5.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.6 Lutetian
28.1.6.1 Historical overview
28.1.6.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.7 Bartonian
28.1.7.1 Historical overview
28.1.7.2 Toward definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.8 Priabonian
28.1.8.1 Historical overview
28.1.8.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.9 Rupelian
28.1.9.1 Historical overview
28.1.9.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.1.10 Chattian
28.1.10.1 Historical overview
28.1.10.2 Definition of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
28.2 Paleogene Biostratigraphy
28.2.1 Marine Biostratigraphy
28.2.1.1 Planktonic Foraminifera
28.2.1.2 Larger Benthic Foraminifera
28.2.1.3 Smaller Benthic Foraminifera
28.2.1.4 Calcareous Nannoplankton
28.2.1.5 Radiolaria
28.2.1.6 Dinoflagellate cysts
28.2.2 Terrestrial biostratigraphy
28.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
28.2.3.1 Magnetostratigraphy
28.2.3.2 Chemostratigraphy and climatic evolution
28.3 Paleogene time scale
28.3.1 Astronomical age model
28.3.2 Limits of validity of solar system orbital solutions
28.3.3 Updates to magnetic reversal ages since the Geologic Time Scale 2012
28.3.4 Ages of Paleogene stages
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
29 The Neogene Period
29.1 History and subdivisions
29.1.1 Overview of Neogene
29.1.2 Subdivisions of the Miocene
29.1.2.1 Aquitanian and the Oligocene–Miocene boundary
29.1.2.2 Burdigalian
29.1.2.3 Langhian
29.1.2.4 Serravallian
29.1.2.5 Tortonian
29.1.2.6 Messinian
29.1.3 Subdivisions of the Pliocene
29.1.3.1 Zanclean and the Miocene–Pliocene boundary
29.1.3.2 Piacenzian and the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary
29.1.4 Regional stages
29.1.4.1 Central and Eastern Paratethys
29.1.4.2 New Zealand
29.2 Neogene stratigraphy
29.2.1 Biostratigraphy
29.2.1.1 Calcareous nannofossils
29.2.1.2 Planktonic foraminifera
29.2.1.3 Diatoms and radiolarians
29.2.1.4 Dinoflagellates
29.2.2 Terrestrial biostratigraphy
29.2.2.1 Mammals
29.2.3 Physical stratigraphy
29.2.3.1 Magnetostratigraphy
29.2.3.2 Geochemical stratigraphy
29.2.3.3 Sequence stratigraphy
29.3 Neogene astronomically tuned time scale
29.3.1 Toward a fully astronomically tuned Neogene polarity time scale
29.3.2 GTS2012 and GTS2020
29.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
30 The Quaternary Period
30.1 This chapter
30.2 Evolution of terminology
30.3 The Plio–Pleistocene boundary and definition of the Quaternary
30.4 Subdivision of the Pleistocene
30.4.1 Lower Pleistocene Subseries
30.4.1.1 Gelasian Stage
30.4.1.2 Calabrian Stage
30.4.2 Middle Pleistocene Subseries
30.4.2.1 Chibanian Stage
30.4.3 Upper Pleistocene Subseries
30.5 Pleistocene/Holocene boundary
30.6 Holocene Series
30.7 Subdivision of the Holocene
30.7.1 Greenlandian Stage, Lower Holocene Subseries
30.7.2 Northgrippian Stage, Middle Holocene Subseries
30.7.3 Meghalayan Stage, Upper Holocene Subseries
30.8 Anthropocene Series
30.9 Terrestrial records
30.9.1 Glacial deposits and climatostratigraphy
30.9.2 Loess deposits
30.9.3 Ice cores
30.9.4 Speleothems
30.9.5 Long Lake records
30.9.6 Mammal biochronology and the Villafranchian Stage
30.10 Ocean–sediment records
30.11 Land–sea correlation
30.12 Quaternary dating methods
Bibliography
31 The Anthropocene
31.1 Origin of the term and history of research as a stratigraphic unit
31.2 Lithostratigraphic evidence for the Anthropocene
31.3 Chemostratigraphic indicators of the Anthropocene
31.4 Biostratigraphic indicators of the Anthropocene
31.5 Climatic signals of the Anthropocene
31.6 Anthropocene GSSP possibilities
31.6.1 Lake deposits
31.6.2 Marine anoxic basins
31.6.3 Estuaries and deltas
31.6.4 Speleothems
31.6.5 Glacial ice
31.6.6 Corals
31.6.7 Trees
31.6.8 Peat
31.7 Summary
Bibliography
Appendix 1 Recommended color coding of stages
Appendix 2 Radioisotopic ages used in GTS2020
Bibliography
Index