General Reports of the XXth General Congress of the International Academy of Comparative Law - Rapports généraux du XXème Congrès général de l'Académie internationale de droit comparé

Avant-propos/Foreword
Contents
Comparative Law and Multicultural Legal Classes: Challenge or Opportunity?
1 The Self and the External World: The Question of Understanding
2 The Genuine Meaning of the Query
3 Comparatio as a Field of Scholarly Activity and as a New, Comparison-Based Form of Legal Education
4 Centrality of Self-Image, or Our Own Place in the World
5 The Problem of Legal Families
6 Successes and Results
7 Challenge and Opportunity
References
Property Meeting the Challenge of the Commons
1 The Entrance of the Commons on the Stage of Comparative Law
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Raise of the Commons in the Italian Legal Debate
1.3 Conceptualize the Commons
1.4 Comparative Projects on the Commons
2 Structure and Sense of the Research
2.1 The Commons as the Challenge
2.2 The Questionnaire
2.3 The Legal Systems Covered
2.4 A Comparative Discussion
3 Open Questions
3.1 Understanding the Commons
3.2 Past and Present of the Commons
3.3 Academic Debates on the Commons
3.4 Comparative Analysis
3.5 The Protection of Public Property Beyond the Law in the Books
3.6 Inalienability of Public Goods
3.7 Remedies Against Privatizations
3.8 Remedies Against Nationalization of the Commons
3.9 Comparative Remarks
3.10 Private Property and the Commons
3.11 Private Property and Constitutional Protection
3.12 Exclusion and Access in Property Law
3.13 Comparative Remarks
4 Conflicts and Cases
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Property Rights vs Other Constitutional Rights
4.2.1 Right to Home
4.2.2 Comparative Remarks
4.2.3 Right to Health
4.2.4 Right to Food
4.2.5 Culture
4.2.6 Access to Nature
4.2.7 Partial Final Remarks
4.3 Access to Water
4.3.1 Rural Context
4.3.2 Urban Context
4.4 Informal Communities and Future Generations
4.4.1 Territory
4.4.2 Climate
5 Conclusive Remarks
The UNIDROIT Principles as a Common Frame of Reference for the Uniform Interpretation of National Laws
1 Introduction
2 Foundations for Using the PICC to Interpret and Supplement Domestic Contract Law
2.1 Jurisdictions Lacking Normative Foundations for Applying the PICC to Interpret or Supplement the Domestic Law Governing th...
2.2 The Concept of ``General Principles of Law´´ as a Source of Application of the PICC
2.3 The PICC as a Codification of the Law Merchant (`lex mercatoria´)
2.4 International ``Trade Usages´´ or Customs as an Alternative Source of the PICC
2.5 Jurisdictions Where the PICC Have Been Used as a Model for Reform of the Domestic Contract Law
2.6 Choice of the PICC as a Means of Interpreting and Supplementing the Applicable Domestic Law
2.7 Use of the PICC by Arbitral Tribunals as Opposed to National Courts
2.8 Use of the PICC for the Purpose of ``Clarifying´´ and ``Adapting´´ Domestic Law to the Cross-Border Nature of the Transact...
2.9 Reference to the PICC for the Sole Purpose of Corroborating a Result Reached Under Domestic Law
2.10 Application of the PICC to Cross-Border and Domestic Contract Disputes
3 The UNIDROIT Principles as Evidence of a `General Consensus´ on the Law of Contracts
4 Counterparts of UPICC Selected Provisions in National Contract Law
5 By Way of a Conclusion: The Potential Contribution of the UPICC to the Development of an Increasingly Harmonized National Co...
References
Bilingual Study and Research: The Need and Challenges
1 Introduction
2 Bilingual Legal Education in Belgium
3 Bilingual Legal Education in Canada
4 Bilingual Legal Education in China
5 Bilingual Legal Education in Czechia
6 Bilingual Legal Education in Finland
7 Bilingual Legal Education in France
8 Bilingual Legal Education in Germany
9 Bilingual Legal Education in Italy
10 Bilingual Legal Education in Japan
11 Bilingual Legal Education in Mexico
12 Bilingual Legal Education in Romania
13 Bilingual Legal Education in Singapore
14 Bilingual Legal Education in Taiwan
15 Bilingual Legal Education in the United States
References
The Stakes in Sex: A Comparative Study of the Civil Status of Trans Persons
1 Introduction
2 Practices in the Subtle Art of Reporting
2.1 Opportunities and Limitations in Functionally Driven Comparisons
2.2 From Europe to the World
3 The Rights of Trans Persons in Comparative Law Literature
4 Models to Deal with Sex Mobility
4.1 Ground Zero: Non-recognition of Sex Mobility
4.2 Sex Reassignment Surgery as a Requirement for Changes in Birth Certificates
4.3 Power to Doctors: The Soft Medicalization Model
4.4 Self-determination as a Legitimate Source of Sex
4.5 Changes in Names: Not Always a Small Solution
4.6 Family Law Effects
4.7 Non-binary Sex Reporting: Dealing with Early Sex Ambiguity and Mobility
4.8 Conclusions: The Ideal Model for Sex Mobility
5 Gender Modification Interventions and Sex Mobility
5.1 Surgery as Defilement: The Need for Judicial Authorization
5.2 No Doctors Trained to Provide Gender Modification Services
5.3 Insurance Coverage Is Not Enough or Reimbursement Is Not Transparent
5.4 Influences Driving Pathologization and Transphobia
6 Anti-discrimination Et Al
7 Conclusions
References
Compensation Schemes and Extra-Judicial Solutions in Case of Medical Malpractice: A Commentary on Contemporary Arrangements
1 Preliminary Remarks
2 International Law Within a Comparative Perspective
3 Patient as a Consumer of Healthcare Services
4 European Union Law Perspective
5 Dealing with Medical Malpractice
6 Compensation Schemes
7 Extra-Judicial Solutions
8 General Conclusions
References
Documents
Transparency of Information and Disinformation of Consumers
1 Introduction
2 General Characteristics of the Consumer Information Model
2.1 Economic Orientation of Consumer Models
2.2 The Consumer Concept
2.2.1 A Codified General Definition of Consumer, But No Unified Definition
Mainly Natural Persons Protected, Sometimes Also Legal Persons or Even Final Users
Acting for Private, Mixed or Business Purposes
Irrespective of the Consumer´s Level of Knowledge
2.2.2 The `Average Consumer´ Is the Benchmark for Information Duties, Unfair Commercial Practices and Unfair Terms
2.2.3 The Changing Nature of the European Average Consumer: From a Severe Obligation to Internalize Disclosed Information to A...
2.2.4 Toward a Definition of Vulnerable Consumers: The Sick, the Elder and the Young?
3 Pre-contractual Information Requirements
3.1 General Duty of Information Disclosure
3.2 Specific Transparency Requirements: Food Labelling and Beyond
3.3 Mandatory and Additional Voluntary Information
3.4 Sanctions for Failure to Provide (Correct) Mandatory Information
4 Misleading Commercial Practices
4.1 Overall Analysis
4.2 Advertising Directed Towards Children
5 Unfair Contract Terms: Bargaining Power and Transparency
5.1 Standard-Form Contracts and Individually Negotiated Terms
5.2 Exclusion of Core Contract Terms: Transparency Requirement
5.2.1 Case Law of the CJEU
5.2.2 Application of Transparency in the EU and beyond
5.2.3 Core Terms Must Be Prominent
5.3 Black or Grey List of Unfair Terms
5.4 Specific Rules Concerning the Control of Unfair Terms in B2B Relationships
6 Sector Specific Rules
6.1 Financial Consumer: Rationalisation, Yes; Simplification, Not Yet
6.2 Digital Consumer: Consent for Use Personal Data
7 Behavioural Sciences´ Impact on the Consumer Information Model
8 Conclusion
8.1 Economic Orientation of Consumer Models: Concept of Average Consumer
8.2 Pre-contractual Information: Transparent Contract Terms-Misleading Practices
8.3 Financial Consumer
8.4 Digital Consumer
8.5 Overload of Information: Behavioural Critiques-Which Way Forward?
References
Optional Choice of Court Agreements in Private International Law
1 Introduction
1.1 Scope of This Project
2 Attitudes to Jurisdictional Agreements
3 The Distinction Between Exclusive and Optional Choice of Court Agreements
3.1 Distinguishing an Exclusive from an Optional Choice of Court Agreement
3.2 Varieties of Choice of Court Agreements
4 The Positive Effects of Choice of Court Agreements
4.1 The Problem with Prorogation
5 The Negative Effects of Choice of Court Agreements
5.1 The Negative Effect of Exclusive Choice of Court Agreements
5.2 The Negative Effects of Optional Choice of Court Agreements
5.2.1 An Agreement That Changes Character When the Option Is Exercised
5.2.2 Additional Provisions
5.2.3 Implied Promises
5.2.4 Discrimination Between Options in Favour of Forum and Foreign Courts
6 Limitations on the Parties´ Choice of Court
7 Support of Optional Choice of Court Agreements
8 Weaker Parties
9 Asymmetric Choice of Court Agreements
10 Optional Choice of Court Agreements in Intra-national Cases
11 The Recognition of Foreign Judgments
12 Justifications for Enforcing Choice of Court Agreements
13 Reform
14 Conclusion
References
National Reports Cited in This Chapter
Questions de droit international privé de la responsabilité sociétale des entreprises
1 Introduction
2 Définition et sources (questions 1 à 5)
2.1 Existe-t-il une définition de la responsabilité sociétale des entreprises dans votre pays ?
2.2 L´influence des Points de contact nationaux
2.3 L´influence des Principes des Nations Unies pour les entreprises et les droits de l´Homme
2.4 Autres normes
3 Qualification (Questions 6 à 9)
3.1 Droit des sociétés
3.2 Droit des contrats
3.3 Droit de la responsabilité délictuelle ou quasi délictuelle
3.4 Ordre public
4 Modes alternatifs de règlement des différends (Questions 10 et 11)
5 Compétence juridictionnelle (Questions 12 à 14)
6 Droit applicable (questions 15 à 19)
6.1 Comment la lex societatis se détermine-t-elle ?
6.2 Comment se détermine la lex contractus ?
6.3 Comment se détermine la loi applicable en matière délictuelle ?
6.4 Vérification de la conformité à l´ordre public ou aux normes en matière de droits de l´Homme, etc
6.5 Application ou prise en considération de normes éthiques ?
7 Reconnaissance et exécution des jugements (questions 20 à 22)
Références
Control of Price Related Terms in Standard Form Contracts
1 Presentation of the Research Question
2 Presentation of the Results of the Questionnaire
3 Freedom of Contract and Justifications of Its Limitation
3.1 The Justification of Freedom of Contract
3.2 Limits to Freedom of Contract
4 Standard Contract Terms and Their Control
4.1 Rationale of Controlling Standard Contract Terms
4.2 Definition, Incorporation and Interpretation of Standard Contract Terms
4.3 Substantive Control of Standard Contract Terms
4.3.1 Ambit of Substantive Control
4.3.2 Various Techniques of Substantive Control
4.3.2.1 Indirect Substantive Control
4.3.2.2 Direct Substantive Control
4.3.3 Legal Consequences
4.4 Litigating Against Standard Contract Terms: Collective and Individual Actions Made Easy
5 Judicial Control of Price Related Standard Contract Terms
5.1 Principal Rule: Prices Are Determined Freely on the Market
5.2 Special Protection Needed if Price Terms in SCT are Not Subject to Competition
5.3 Examples of Debated Terms
5.3.1 Ancillary Price Term or Not?
5.3.1.1 Additional Fees
5.3.1.2 Terms Regarding Consequences of a Breach of Contract
5.3.1.3 Loss of Price Advantages in Case of an Early Termination
5.3.2 Transparent Main Subject Matter or Not?
5.3.2.1 Open Price Clauses
5.3.2.2 Flat Remuneration
5.3.2.3 Price Adjustment Clauses
5.3.2.4 Foreign Currency Clauses
5.3.2.5 Calculation of Interest Rates
5.3.2.6 Missing Price Breakdown
6 Special Regulatory Provisions Controlling Price Terms
7 Special Disclosure Regulations Promoting Price Transparency and Competition
8 Efficiency and the Way Forward
Annex: Questionnaire for the National Reporters
General Information on the Scope of Freedom of Contract
General Information on Control of SCT
Judicial Control of Price Terms in SCT
Special Regulatory Provisions Controlling Price Terms
Special Disclosure Regulations Promoting Price Transparency and Competition
References
Groups of Companies
1 Introduction
1.1 General Remarks
1.2 The Main Problems
1.3 National Reports
2 Elements That Define a Group of Companies
2.1 Control and the Different Purposes of Its Definitions
2.2 Organic Control Only or Also Other Sources
2.3 Parties to the Control Relationship
2.3.1 Controlling or Dominating Party. Ultimate Controlling Person
2.3.2 The Dependent Entity
2.4 Cross Shareholding
2.5 The Dynamic Element
2.6 Some Further General Comments on Groups
3 Legal Models and Approaches to Groups of Companies
3.1 Jurisdictions with Special Corporate Law Regulations on Company Groups
3.2 Reliance on General Company Law Rules
3.3 Disclosure, Accounting and Consolidated Financial Statements
3.4 Other Areas of Law
3.5 Labour Law
3.6 Tax Law
3.7 Competition and Antitrust Law
3.8 Financial Institutions and Insurance Companies
3.9 Foreign Investment Law and Investment Protection Treaties
3.10 Environmental Liabilities
3.11 Arbitration
3.12 Private International Law
4 The Role of Group Interest and the Balance Between Advantages and Disadvantages
5 Protection of Minority Shareholders
5.1 Specific Rules
5.2 Reliance on Civil Law and General Company Law Rules and Principles
5.3 Directors´ Duties as Shareholders Protection
5.4 Shareholders´ Rights and Duties
5.5 Squeeze Out, Inverse Squeeze Out and Withdrawal Rights
5.6 Rules on Intragroup Loans and Related Party Transactions
5.7 Remedies and Standing
6 The Upside-Down Perspective. Company Law Issues at the Level of the Controlling Company
7 The Protection of Creditors and Other Third Parties
7.1 General
7.2 Disregard of Legal Entity: Piercing the Corporate Veil
8 Insolvency
9 Conclusion
Reference
La régulation juridique du crowdfunding
1 Introduction
2 LE CROWDFUNDING : UN CONCEPT MULTIPLE
2.1 LE FINANCEMENT PARTICIPATIF SOUS FORME DE DON (DONATION CROWDFUNDING ou CROWDSPONSORING ou CROWDONATING)
2.1.1 Qualification du rapport entre le contributeur et le porteur de projet
2.1.2 Qualification du rapport entre le porteur de projet et l´entreprise de financement participatif
2.1.3 Qualification du rapport entre le contributeur et l´entreprise de financement participatif
2.1.4 Des dons à vocation particulière
2.2 LE FINANCEMENT PARTICIPATIF AVEC CONTREPARTIE (REWARD CROWDFUNDING, PRE-SALE CROWDFUNDING, or CROWDSUPPORTING)
2.3 LE FINANCEMENT PARTICIPATIF SOUS FORME DE PRÊT (CROWDLENDING)
2.3.1 Les hypothèses de « prêt direct »
2.3.2 Les hypothèses de prêt indirect
2.4 LE FINANCEMENT PARTICIPATIF SOUS FORME D´INVESTISSEMENT EN CAPITAL (CROWDINVESTING OU EQUITY CROWDFUNDING)
2.4.1 L´offre d´instruments financiers
2.4.2 L´encadrement des rapports de droit entre les plateformes, les porteurs de projet et les investisseurs
3 LE STATUT DES ENTREPRISES DE FINANCEMENT PAR LA FOULE
3.1 Un accès réglementé au statut d´entreprise de financement par la foule ?
3.1.1 Dans le cas du financement par la foule non-financier
3.1.2 Dans le cas du crowdlending
3.1.3 Dans le cas du crowdinvesting
3.2 La supervision de l´activité de financement par la foule
4 LA PROTECTION DE LA FOULE
4.1 La protection des donateurs (crowddonating)
4.2 La protection des contributeurs dans le cadre du reward crowdfunding ou pre-sale crowdfunding
4.3 La protection des prêteurs
4.4 La protection des investisseurs
4.4.1 Via la législation sur la protection des investisseurs.
4.4.2 Via une législation spécifique
5 L´ACTIVITÉ TRANSFRONTIÈRE DU FINANCEMENT PAR LA FOULE
5.1 Champ d´application des textes relatifs au financement par la foule
5.1.1 Critère de rattachement
5.1.2 Limitation monétaire
5.2 Loi applicable aux relations contractuelles
5.3 Les litiges transfrontières impliquant une activité de financement par la foule
5.3.1 Compétence judiciaire internationale
5.3.2 Arbitrage international
References
Security Rights in Intellectual Property
1 Introduction
1.1 Economic Importance
1.2 Main Legal and Economic Challenges
1.2.1 Secured Transactions Law Not Sufficiently Adapted to IP Rights
1.2.2 Life Cycle of an IP Right
1.2.3 The Problem of Evaluation
1.2.4 Problems Connected to Enforcement
Decreasing Value of the Collateral
Liquidity of the Market
2 The Limited Role of International Uniform Law for Security Rights in IP
2.1 Uniform Law on Intellectual Property
2.2 Soft Law on Secured Transactions
3 IP Rights as Collateral: Transferability in General
3.1 Collateralization of IP Rights Under National Law
3.1.1 General Taxonomy of Property Law
3.1.2 Specific Statutory Provisions
3.1.3 Interplay Between Secured Transactions Law and IP Law
3.1.4 Preliminary Rights
3.1.5 Exceptions to the General Transferability of IP Rights
3.2 Transferability and Collateralization of IP Rights Under Uniform Supranational Law
3.2.1 EU Trade Mark Regulation
3.2.2 Community Design Regulation
4 IP Rights as Collateral: Which Security Rights Are Available?
4.1 Jurisdictions with a Functional Approach to Security Rights
4.2 Jurisdictions Without a Functional Approach to Security Rights
4.2.1 Modernized Systems
4.2.2 Traditional Systems
4.3 Jurisdictions with Specific Statutory Provisions for Security Over IP Rights
5 Licences and Royalties as Collateral
6 Creation (``Attachment´´), Perfection, and Priority, Including Requirements as to Form, Registration, and Publicity
6.1 Functional Approach
6.1.1 Functional and Unitary Approach
6.1.2 Functional But Non-unitary Approach
6.2 Non-functional Approach
6.2.1 Modernized Systems
6.2.2 Traditional Systems
6.3 Concluding Remarks
7 Security Over IP Rights as Part of an Enterprise Charge
8 The Legal Relationship Before Default
9 Remedies of the Secured Creditor Outside Insolvency (Enforcement)
9.1 Unitary and Functional Systems
9.2 Non-unitary Systems
10 Remedies of the Secured Creditor in Insolvency
11 Practical Use of Security Rights in IP and Costs
11.1 Costs
11.2 Frequency of Transactions
12 Reform and Harmonization Projects
12.1 National Reform Proposals
12.2 International Proposals
13 Some Tentative Conclusions
References
The Role of Collective Bargaining in Labour Law Regimes: A Global Approach
1 Introduction
1.1 Background: Comparative Socio-Cultural Contexts
1.2 Legal Comparison as a Window of Understanding
2 Legal Frameworks for Collective Bargaining
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Histories of Evolution
2.3 A Fundamental Labour Rights Perspective and Constitutional Protection
2.4 National Regulatory Frameworks for Collective Bargaining
2.5 Perspectives on the Legal Nature of Collective Agreements
2.5.1 Changing Nature of Bargaining Regimes: in melius and in peius Derogations
2.5.2 Erga omnes Effect
3 Decentralization of Collective Bargaining
3.1 Introduction
3.2 European Trends in Decentralization
3.2.1 Opening Clauses: German Decentralization
3.2.2 The Impact of the European Economic Governance
3.2.3 Decentralization as a Channel of the Individualization of Collective Bargaining
3.3 Asian Approaches
3.4 North American Experience
3.5 Brazilian Evolution
3.6 Russian Experience
4 National Collective Bargaining Models and Globalization
4.1 Introduction
5 Transnational Dimension of Collective Bargaining
5.1 Introduction
5.2 European Developments: European Works Councils as a Driving Force
5.3 Global Developments: International Framework Agreements
5.4 Developing a Transnational Regulatory Framework
6 Conclusions
6.1 Transformation of Industrial Relations: A Call for Reconceptualization of Bargaining Regimes
6.2 Grouping Collective Bargaining Systems on the Basis of Developments in Decentralization
6.3 The Right to Bargain Collectively and Decollectivization of Industrial Relations
References
Legal Aspects of Cruises
1 Introduction
1.1 Kinds of Impact That Cruise Tourism Can Originate
1.2 Maritime Transport of Passengers Throughout History
1.3 Maritime Cabotage
1.4 Cruises Travel Through Waters Submitted to Different Legal Regimes
1.4.1 International Waters: Principle of Freedom of Navigation
1.4.2 High Seas
1.4.3 Internal Waters
1.4.4 Territorial Sea
1.5 Final Remarks
2 The Importance of Cruises in General and in Some Particular Areas and Countries
2.1 General Remarks
2.2 Main Cruise Destinies
2.2.1 Europe
2.2.2 Asia
2.2.3 America
2.3 Importance of Cruise Business
2.3.1 Statistics
2.3.2 Policies Favouring Cruise Business
2.3.3 Port Services Offered to Cruises
2.3.4 Ship Management Industry
2.3.5 Shipyards and Cruises
2.3.6 Relevance of Cruise Business in Labour Market
2.3.7 Flags of Convenience
2.4 Final Remarks
3 General and Specific Rules Applicable to Cruises
3.1 Cruises as an Issue To Be Approached by Several Law Matters
3.2 General Rules Applicable in the Absence or Insufficiency of Specific Rules
3.3 Sources of Law Relevant to Cruises
3.3.1 In Europe
3.3.2 In the Americas
3.3.3 In Asia
3.4 Sources of Self-regulation, Soft-Law, Lex Mercatoria
3.4.1 Medical Facilities
3.4.2 Cruise Industry Influenza Protocol (2009)
3.4.3 Ten Points Cruise Passenger Bill of Rights (2013)
3.5 Liability Issues
3.5.1 Applicable Rules: General or Specific?
3.5.2 International Rules: The Athens Convention Relating to the Carriage of Passengers and Their Luggage by Sea of 1974 and P...
3.5.3 Law Applicable in Some Countries and Regions
3.6 Insurance for Carriage of Passengers by Sea and Particularly for Cruises
3.7 Final Remarks
4 Cruise Passengers as Consumers
4.1 The Importance of Consumer Law in the Protection of the Tourist, Including the Cruise Passenger
4.2 National and Regional Rules on Tourists´ Protection
4.3 Final Remarks
5 Combined Trips, Package Travels, Package Tours or Package Holidays
5.1 Concept of Combined Trips, Package Travels or Package Holidays
5.2 Retailers, Travel Agents, Tour Operators and Their Liability
5.3 Price Reductions for Lack of Conformity
5.4 Service Fees Charged Aboard
5.5 Supranational, International and National Rules on Package Travels
5.6 Final Remarks
6 Labour Rules on Cruises´ Workers
6.1 Specific Labour Rules on Cruises´ Workers
6.2 General Labour Rules That Are Applicable to Cruises´ Workers in the Absence of Specific Rules on the Matter
6.3 The 2006 Maritime Labour Convention
6.4 Final Remarks
7 Rules on Ports That Are Relevant Regarding Cruises
7.1 General and Specific Rules
7.1.1 In Europe
7.1.2 In the Americas
7.1.3 In Asia
7.2 Costs, Taxes and Rates Charged by Ports to Cruises
7.2.1 In Europe
7.2.2 In the Americas
7.2.3 In Asia
7.3 Final Remarks
8 Rules on Environmental Impact of Cruises
8.1 General Remarks
8.2 Regional and National Regulations
8.2.1 International Conventions
8.2.2 European Rules
8.2.3 South American Rules
8.2.4 Antarctic Continent
8.2.5 Federal and State Legislation in the USA
8.3 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, Brussels, 1969
8.4 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, as Modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78)
8.5 Problems Regarding the Implementation of the Environmental Protection Rules
8.6 Final Remarks
9 Jurisdiction and Arbitration
9.1 Specific and General Provisions on Jurisdiction Applicable to Cruises
9.1.1 At the International Level: The Athens Convention Relating to the Carriage of Passengers and Their Luggage by Sea
9.1.2 In the Americas
9.1.3 In the European Union
9.1.4 In Asia
9.1.5 Final Remarks
9.2 Forum Selection Clauses Included in General Conditions of Cruise Contracts and Consumer Protection Rules
9.2.1 In the Americas
9.2.2 In the European Union
9.2.3 In Asia
9.2.4 Final Remarks
9.3 Arbitration Clauses Included in General Conditions of Cruise Contracts
9.3.1 In the Americas
9.3.2 In the European Union
9.3.3 Final Remarks
10 Choice of Law
10.1 In the Americas
10.2 In the European Union
10.2.1 Supranational Sources on Choice of Law and Applicable Law
10.2.2 National Sources on Choice of Law and Applicable Law
10.3 In Asia
10.4 Final Remarks
11 General Conditions Used by Companies Offering Cruise Services
11.1 Preliminary Considerations
11.2 Arbitration
11.3 Jurisdiction and Applicable Law
11.4 Legal References in General Conditions
11.5 Limitation of Liability
11.6 Final Remarks
12 Sources of Law Applicable to Cruises
12.1 European Union Supranational Sources of Law: Regulations
12.2 European Union Supranational Sources of Law: Directives
12.3 International Sources of Law
12.4 National Sources of Law
12.4.1 In Europe
12.4.2 In the Americas
12.4.3 In Asia
13 Conclusions
Web Pages Visited
References
The Fight Against Poverty and the Right to Development
1 Introduction
2 Domestic Law and Remedies
2.1 General Remarks
2.2 Relationship to International Law
2.2.1 How Are ESCR in International Law Transposed into Domestic Law?
2.2.2 Overview of Ratification of Key Legal Instruments
2.3 Constitutional Protection
2.3.1 How and to What Extent Constitutions Include ESCRs
2.3.2 The Justiciability of the Constitutional Rights Framework
2.4 Remedies and Relationship to International Review Mechanism
2.4.1 Remedies Available in the Fight Against Poverty
National Remedies More Broadly
Connections with Regional and International Review Mechanisms
2.4.2 How Does National Systems Value ESCRs
3 Domestic Law Contributions in an International Context
3.1 General Remarks
3.2 Domestic Constitutional or Legal Innovations
3.2.1 Domestic Constitutional Contributions in an International Context
3.2.2 Mechanisms of a Legal or Wider Regulatory Nature Contributing Internationally
3.3 Policy Monitoring and/or Accountability Mechanisms
3.3.1 Relationship Between Development Programmes and the RtD
The Presence of RtD, the SDGs and Other Development Related Policies
Funding Levels for Development Programmes
3.3.2 Accountability and Monitoring Mechanisms for Development Programmes
3.4 Unilateral/Bilateral Initiatives or Agreements
4 Crosscutting Contemporary Themes
4.1 General Remarks
4.1.1 The Fight Against Poverty and the RtD in Post-conflict Societies
4.1.2 The Fight Against Poverty and the RtD in International Trade and Investment Law
International Trade Law
International Investment Law
4.1.3 The Fight Against Poverty and the RtD in Business and Human Rights
5 Concluding Remarks and Future Developments
Legal Documents
Miscellaneous
Websites
News Articles
References
Books and Journal Articles
Formal and Informal Constitutional Amendment
1 Constitutional Amendment
2 Constitutionalism
3 The Rule of Law
4 Liberty
5 Amendment
6 Constitutional Duties
7 Constitutional Justice
8 Argentina
9 Australia
10 Belgium
11 China
12 Cyprus
13 The Czech Republic
14 Denmark
15 Hungary
16 Italy
17 Japan
18 The Netherlands
19 Poland
20 Romania
21 Singapore
22 Slovak Republic
23 Switzerland
24 United States of America
25 Challenges
26 Principles and Techniques
27 Conclusion
References
Debating Legal Pluralism and Constitutionalism: New Trajectories for Legal Theory in the Global Age
1 Introduction: General Perspective
2 The Statics of the Relations Among Legal Spheres in Positive Law: Multifaceted Pluralism
2.1 Outward Pluralism: Perspectives on the Relationship Between Domestic and International, Supranational, and Transnational L...
2.2 Inward Pluralism: Perspectives on the Internal Consistency of Domestic Legal Systems
3 The Dynamics of the Relations Among Legal Spheres in Positive Law
4 The Renewal of Legal Reasoning
5 The Renewal of Legal Scholarship
6 The Ideological Dimensions of Legal Rationality
6.1 Questioning Pluralist Dialogism
6.2 Questioning Constitutionalism and Pluralism
6.3 Questioning This General Report´s Implicit Biases
References
The Right to Be Forgotten
1 Introduction
2 Balancing the Freedom of Expression Against the General Right to Privacy
2.1 The European Approach vs. the United States´ Approach
2.2 An Illustration
2.3 Variations in Latin America, South East Asia and the Far East
2.3.1 Latin America
2.3.2 Japan and Taiwan
3 The Right to Privacy´s Implications for the Right to Be Forgotten
3.1 Liberty, Dignity, Capitalism and the Right to Be Forgotten
3.2 Dignity, Balancing Free Speech and the Right to Privacy, and the Recognition of the Right to Be Forgotten
3.3 Liberty and Free Speech As Limits to the Recognition of the Right to Be Forgotten
4 The Core Justifications of the Right to Be Forgotten: Self-realization, Dignity, Personal Freedom, and Control over Informat...
4.1 General Remarks
4.2 The Multiple Facets of the Right to Be Forgotten
4.3 Expanding the Scope of the Original Right to Be Forgotten
5 The Implications of the Right to Control Information About Oneself
5.1 Individuals´ Ability to Control Their Personal Data
5.2 Obstacles to Individuals´ Control
5.3 The Role of Search Engines/Data Processors
5.4 Adjudication of Control
5.5 The Extent of Search Engines´ Liability in Disputes over Control
6 Conclusion
The Right to Be Forgotten: Questionnaire
References
Case Law
Literature
Conventions/Statutes
Deference to the Administration in Judicial Review: Comparative Perspectives
1 Introduction
2 The Role of the Courts: Setting the Scene for Discussion
3 Defining the Concept of ``Deference´´
4 Deferential Judicial Review in Operation
4.1 Deference rationae personae or rationae materiae
4.2 Deference and the Separation of Powers
4.3 Political Issues and Deference to the Political Branches of the Government
4.4 Deference to the Executive
4.5 Deference Due to the Nature of the Courts
4.6 Technical Deference
4.7 How Deference Is Manifested
5 Deference and the Rule of Law
6 Concluding Remarks
Annex: Questionnaire on ``Deferene to the Administration in Judicial Review´´
Introduction: Concept and Definition
Objectives of the Project
Proposed Structure
Main Questions/Issues
Introduction to National System
Questions Concerning Judicial Deference
Comparison and Lessons to Learn
References
Books
Articles
Attorney-Client Confidentiality as a Fair Trial Right in Criminal Proceedings
1 Introduction
2 The Attorney-Client Privilege and the Lawyer´s Duty of Confidentiality
2.1 Tensions and Competing Interests: The Role of the Defence Attorney Between the Duties Towards the Administration of Justic...
2.2 Basic Parameters of the Attorney-Client Privilege
2.3 Dealing with Client´s Untrue Testimony and Perjury
2.4 Handling of Incriminating Evidence or Revealing Its Whereabouts
2.5 Special Disclosure Rules in Relation to White Collar Crime, Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing
2.6 The ``Crime-Fraud´´ Exception to the Privilege
2.7 Duty to Reveal Information from the Client Concerning Future Crimes or Civil Wrongs
2.8 Lawyers for Corporate Clients
2.9 Sanctions for a Lawyer´s Breach of the Duty of Confidentiality
3 State Intrusion Into the Confidentiality of Attorney-Client Communications
3.1 Subpoenaing the Attorney to Testify Against the Client
3.2 Subpoenaing Documentary or Physical Evidence from an Attorney
3.3 Searches of Lawyer´s Offices
3.4 Interception of Confidential Communications Between Lawyer and Client
3.4.1 Interception of Communications by Mail
3.4.2 Use of Informants to Overhear Privileged Conversations
3.4.3 Wiretapping, Bugging, Intercepting Electronic Communications or Communications Metadata
4 Exclusionary Rules Related to Violations of the Attorney-Client Privilege and the Right to Counsel
5 Conclusion
References
Data Protection in the Internet
1 Introduction
1.1 Subject-Matter, Purpose and Scope of the Present Report
1.2 Organization of the Report
2 The General Data Protection Framework
2.1 The Applicable Rules
2.2 The Notion of Personal Data
2.3 The Supervision Authorities
2.4 The Self-Regulation Instruments
3 Specific Problems Concerning Data Protection in the Internet
3.1 Personal Data Processed by Electronic Means
3.1.1 Processing of Personal Data in the Context of Services Provided at a Distance by Electronic Means
3.1.2 Protection of Minors´ Personal Data Processed by Electronic Means
3.1.3 The Right to the Erasure of Personal Data Processed by Electronic Means
3.1.4 Protection of Employees´ Personal Data Processed by Electronic Means
3.1.5 Security Obligations and Data Breach Notifications Concerning Data Processed by Electronic Means
3.2 Data Protection in the Electronic Communications Sector
3.3 Data Protection and Digital Forensics
3.4 Data Protection and Electronic Surveillance for Security and Defense Purposes
3.5 Remedies and Sanctions
4 The International Dimension of Data Protection
4.1 The Territorial Scope of Rules on Data Protection
4.2 The Applicability of Data Protection Rules to Foreign Entities
4.3 The Specific Conditions Applicable to the Transfer of Personal Data to a Foreign Jurisdiction
4.4 The Law Applicable to Liability for Damages Caused by the Unlawful Processing of Personal Data
5 Concluding Remarks
5.1 The Basic Approaches to Regulation of Data Protection in the Internet
5.2 A General Assessment
References
Legal Aspects of Genetic Testing Regarding Insurance and Employment
1 IntroductionQuestions 1-2 of the Questionnaire.
2 Specific Rights and Obligations Regarding Genetic Testing in the Insurance and Employment Context
2.1 Justifications for and Against the Collection of Genetic Information by Employers and InsurersQuestion 19 of the Questionn...
2.2 Legal Conceptualizations of Genetic Testing and InformationQuestions 3 and 4 of the Questionnaire.
2.3 Anti-discrimination Norms Dealing Specifically with Genetic StatusQuestions 8, 9 and 11 of the Questionnaire.
2.4 Specific Rights and Obligations of Insurers and Employers in Other Types of NormsQuestions 5-6, 8 and 19-23 of the Questio...
2.4.1 The General Prohibition Model
2.4.2 Conditional Allowance to Request Information or TestingOur questionnaire (question 22) also asked what power insurers an...
2.4.3 Extraterritorial Jurisdiction
2.5 Rights and Obligations of the Insurance or Job Applicant, the Insured or Employee, and Close Family MembersQuestions 24-25...
3 Generalist Frameworks Relevant to the Regulation of Genetic TestingQuestions 8-18 of the Questionnaire.
3.1 General Non-discrimination Protection
3.2 Privacy, Confidentiality and DisclosureQuestions 7 and 13-17 of the questionnaire.
3.2.1 Confidentiality of Clinical and Research Data
3.2.2 Confidentiality of Insurer or Employer´s Data
3.2.3 Right to Access Information and the Right Not to Know
3.2.4 Family Members´ Interests
4 ConclusionQuestions 26-29 of the Questionnaire.
Appendix
Annex I Questionnaire: Legal Aspects of Genetic Testing Regarding Insurance and Employment
Introduction
Part I: Are Existing Generalist Frameworks for Regulating Genetic Testing Adequately Adapted to the Insurance and Employment C...
A. General
B. Human Rights
B.1 Non-discrimination Protection
B.2 Privacy, Confidentiality and Disclosure
B.3 Other
Part II: Do the Specific Rights and Obligations in the Insurance and Employment Contexts Effectively Reconcile Stakeholders´ I...
A. Rights and Obligations of Insurers and Employers
B. Rights and Obligations of the Insurance or Job Applicant, the Insured or Employee, and Close Family Members
Conclusion
Annex II Questionnaire: Les Aspects Jurisdiques des Tests Génétiques en Relation à l´Assurance et l´Emploi
Introduction
Partie 1: Est-ce que les cadres généralistes qui réglement ent les tests génétiques sont adaptés aux contextes de l´assurance ...
A. Général
B. Droits de la personne
B.1 Protection contre la discrimination
B.2 Vie privée, confidentialité et divulgation
B.3 Autre
Partie 2: Est-ce que les droits et obligations spécifiques dans les contextes de l´assurance et l´emploi concilient efficaceme...
A. Droits et obligations des assureurs et des employeurs
B. Droits et obligations du preneur d´assurance ou du candidat à l´emploi, de l´assuré ou de l´employé, et des proches
Conclusion
References
The Legal Services Market and Conveyancing
1 Introduction
2 The Landscape of Conveyancers, Their Role and Responsibility
3 Costs, Timeframe and Other Issues
Reference
Climate Change Litigation and the Individual: An Overview
1 Introduction
2 Climate Change and Litigation
2.1 We Really Do Not Have Much Time Left
2.2 All Hands on Deck
2.3 Beyond the Usual Suspects and Going Beyond the Literature
3 Climate Change Litigation: Standing, Grounds of Review and Remedies
3.1 Standing
3.2 Merits (Grounds of Review)
3.2.1 Breach of International Law Obligations
3.2.2 Human Rights
3.2.3 Tort Law
3.2.4 Liability
3.2.5 Judicial Review
3.2.6 Public Trust Doctrine
3.2.7 Breach of Other Environmental Obligations
3.2.8 Criminal Law Grounds
3.2.9 Anti-Competitive Grounds
3.2.10 Fiduciary Duties
3.2.11 Breach of International, National and Corporate Guidelines
3.3 Remedies
4 Climate Change Litigation: Crosscutting Matters
4.1 Causation
4.2 Science and Climate Change Litigation
4.3 Separation of Powers
5 Climate Change Litigation: Challenges Ahead
5.1 Access to Justice
5.2 Lack of Capacity (Including Lack of Specialised Courts)
5.3 Legal Culture
5.4 Lack of Climate Change Awareness
6 The Promise of Climate Change Litigation
References
Literature
Treaties, Conventions and Other International References
Case Law and Legislative Resources
Online Resources
Solidarity Across Generations from the Perspective of Comparative Law: Reconfiguration of Different Types of Solidarity in the...
1 Introduction: Issues and Context
1.1 `Solidarity Across Generations´ from the Perspective of Social and Family Law
1.2 Definitions of ``Generation´´ and Different Types of ``Solidarity´´
1.3 Different Issues in Different Demographic and Economic Contexts
1.4 Developed Welfare States or Countries with Limited Social Expenditure
1.5 Appearance of a New Problem: Long Term Care (LTC)
1.6 Three Main Topics of Discussion
2 Solidarity in Pension Systems
2.1 Different Types of Pensions
2.2 Old Age Pension or Retirement Pension?
2.3 Crisis of the Pension System: How Can Pensioner´s Rights be Protected? How Can the Interests of Different Generations be R...
2.3.1 Context
2.3.2 Reducing Benefits in Pay-As-You-Go Pension Systems
2.3.3 The Legislative and Political Limitations of Pension Cuts
2.3.4 Different Perspectives on the Question of Pension Cuts
3 Family Solidarity and Public SolidarityFor both Sects. 3 and 4, see Sayn (2006).
3.1 Support Duties Between Adult Members of a Family and Welfare Benefits
3.1.1 Different Types of Support Obligations
3.1.2 Reinforcing Support Duties in the Context of an Aging Society
3.2 Family Support Duties and Social Minimum Benefit
3.2.1 Principle of Subsidiarity and Family Support Duties
3.2.2 Recovery of the Cost of Social Benefits from Family Members
4 LTC: Formal and Informal Care
4.1 Taking Care of Elderly People: An Individual, Family or State Concern?
4.1.1 LTC as a Personal and Family Matter
4.1.2 LTC as a Public Matter
4.2 Rewards, Support, or Compensation for Family and Informal Carers
4.2.1 The Importance of Informal Care
4.2.2 Types of Measures for Informal Care Givers
5 Conclusion
References