This book explores gender differences in math performance--and why males outperform females on high stakes standardized tests but not in the classroom. These differences are important because scores on such tests are generally used in decisions that have important consequences for students such as college admissions and job placement. The contributions in this volume present a variety of theories and research that help to explain the differences, and highlight the consequences. Illustratively, if females receive lower scores on the tests, they are likely to be exposed to fewer opportunities thereafter.
Author(s): Ann M. Gallagher, James C. Kaufman
Edition: First Edition
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Year: 2005
Language: English
Pages: 369
Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgement......Page 15
Contributors......Page 17
1 Research on the Women and Mathematics Issue......Page 19
INVESTIGATING THE DETERMINANTS OF MATH COURSE ENROLLMENT AND ACHIEVEMENT......Page 23
AFFECTIVE VARIABLES......Page 27
BARRIERS TO WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN MATH-RELATED CAREERS – THE BIG PICTURE......Page 29
MATHEMATICS ANXIETY AS A BARRIER......Page 30
MATHEMATICS ABILITY AND ACHIEVEMENT AS A POSSIBLE BARRIER......Page 31
POSSIBLE SOURCES OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN TEST PERFORMANCE......Page 33
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS......Page 35
“MATH IS POWER”: CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 36
References......Page 38
2 The Perseverative Search for Sex Differences in Mathematics Ability......Page 43
WHY DO PEOPLE STUDY SEX DIFFERENCES IN COGNITION?......Page 45
WHAT BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISTS HAVE TO IGNORE......Page 46
STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 55
SELF-EFFICACY: BELIEF IN ONE’S OWN ABILITIES......Page 57
MATH-RELATED EXPERIENCE......Page 58
CHOICE OF RESEARCH QUESTION AND THE “FILE-DRAWER” PROBLEM......Page 59
DISCUSSION......Page 60
References......Page 62
3 A Psychobiosocial Model......Page 66
POLITICAL MINEFIELDS......Page 68
THE PSYCHOBIOSOCIAL MODEL......Page 69
Sex Hormones......Page 71
Geschwind’s Theory of Prenatal Hormonal Effects......Page 72
Optimal Level of Estradiol: Prenatal and Postnatal Hormones......Page 73
Arguing from Abnormalities......Page 74
Variance of Cognitive Abilities Over the Menstrual Cycle......Page 75
PSYCHOSOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PSYCHOBIOSOCIAL MODEL......Page 77
Expectancy × Values Models......Page 78
Trait Complexes......Page 79
COGNITIVE PROCESSES THAT UNDERLIE MATHEMATICAL ABILITY......Page 80
Studies with Gifted Youth......Page 82
Visual-Spatial Abilities and the Relation to Quantitative Abilities......Page 84
Problem-Solving Strategies......Page 85
THE PSYCHOBIOSOCIAL MODEL REVISITED......Page 86
References......Page 87
PATTERNS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATH......Page 91
Genetic and Other Physiological Views......Page 93
Socialization Accounts......Page 99
Differential Experience Views......Page 101
Cognitive Process Views......Page 102
THE THREE CONDITIONS MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT......Page 104
IMPLICATIONS OF THE THREE CONDITIONS MODEL......Page 111
References......Page 113
GRADES IN MATH CLASSES......Page 117
SEX DIFFERENCES ON MATH ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ADMINISTERED TO ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS......Page 118
MALE AND FEMALE COMPARISONS ON HIGH-LEVEL MATH TESTS......Page 119
EXPLANATIONS FOR SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATH TESTS......Page 120
DIFFERENCES IN SPATIAL COGNITION AS A FACTOR IN SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATH PERFORMANCE......Page 121
DIFFERENCES IN MATH FACT RETRIEVAL AS A FACTOR IN SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATH TEST PERFORMANCE......Page 122
RESEARCH EXAMINING BOTH SPATIAL COGNITION AND MATH FACT RETRIEVAL AS CONTRIBUTORS TO SEX DIFFERENCES IN MATH TEST PERFORMANCE......Page 124
Identifying How Spatial Cognition and Math Fact Retrieval Influences Math Test Performance......Page 127
Examining Patterns of Performance on Individual Items......Page 132
WHY SEX DIFFERENCES EXIST IN HIGH-LEVEL TEST PERFORMANCE, BUT NOT MATH GRADE PERFORMANCE......Page 133
SUMMARY OF REPORTED RESEARCH......Page 134
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 135
References......Page 136
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATH ACHIEVEMENT......Page 139
SPATIAL SKILLS AND GENDER DIFFERENCES......Page 140
SKILL AT MENTAL ROTATION AND ITS RELATION TO MATH ACHIEVEMENT IN FEMALES......Page 143
THE IMPORTANCE OF MENTAL ROTATION ABILITY AS A CONTRIBUTOR TO GENDER DIFFERENCES ON THE SAT-M......Page 144
THE CONTRIBUTION OF SPATIAL SKILL TO GENDER DIFFERENCES ON THE TYPES OF MATH ITEMS AT WHICH MALES TYPICALLY EXCEL......Page 145
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON SPATIAL ABILITY AND MATHEMATICS......Page 146
A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SPATIAL SKILLS......Page 147
Biological Influences......Page 148
Environmental Influences......Page 149
Math/Science Major as Our Environmental Measure......Page 150
Using Self-Ratings of Spatial Experience as Our Environmental Measure......Page 152
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS......Page 153
References......Page 156
7 Examining Gender-Related Differential Item Functioning Using Insights From Psychometric and Multicontext Theory......Page 161
DIF as a Function of Item Characteristics......Page 162
Multicontext Theory......Page 163
Unique Characteristics of Multicontext Theory......Page 164
Detection of DIF......Page 165
Characteristics of Items That Were Correctly Predicted to Function Differentially......Page 173
Conclusion......Page 174
Mixture IRT Models......Page 175
Modeling Speededness with Ordinal Constraints......Page 176
Characteristics of Examinees in Speeded and Nonspeeded Groups......Page 178
Standard DIF Assessment......Page 180
DISCUSSION......Page 184
References......Page 187
8 The Gender-Gap Artifact......Page 190
STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 192
STEREOTYPE THREAT IN THE LABORATORY......Page 193
STEREOTYPE THREAT IN THE REAL WORLD......Page 196
CONSEQUENCES OF STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 197
POTENTIAL MEDIATORS OF STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 198
STEREOTYPE THREAT CAN LEAD TO DISIDENTIFICATION......Page 200
GENERALIZABILITY OF STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 201
REAL WORLD SOLUTIONS TO STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 202
References......Page 203
9 “Math is hard!” (Barbie™, 1994)......Page 207
STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 208
POSSIBLE MEDIATORS OF STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 210
AROUSAL AS A SUGGESTED MEDIATOR OF STEREOTYPE THREAT......Page 212
EFFECTS OF COGNITIVE APPRAISAL, THREAT VS. CHALLENGE, ON AROUSAL AND PERFORMANCE......Page 213
OUR WORKING STEREOTYPE THREAT MODEL......Page 214
PERFORMANCE DEFICITS AND BOOSTS INTERPRETED THROUGH THE LENS OF THREAT VS. CHALLENGE AROUSAL......Page 217
DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 219
References......Page 222
10 The Role of Ethnicity on the Gender Gap in Mathematics......Page 225
Gender Differences in Math Performance Across Ethnicity......Page 226
Math-Related Interests, Attitudes, and Self-Efficacy......Page 228
Multiple Group Identities and Math-Related Stereotypes......Page 231
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION......Page 233
References......Page 235
INTRODUCING THE PROBLEM......Page 238
THE GENDER GAP IN MATHEMATICS: WHERE WE STAND NOW......Page 239
Family and Social Background Influences on the Gender Gap in Mathematics......Page 242
School Influences on the Gender Gap in Mathematics......Page 245
Community Influences on the Gender Gap in Mathematics......Page 252
TAKING STOCK OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 256
References......Page 258
12 “I can, but I don’t want to”......Page 264
Parent Socialization Model......Page 265
Social-Emotional Climate and General Beliefs......Page 266
Provision of Specific Experiences for the Child......Page 269
Communicating Ability Perceptions, Values, and Future Expectations......Page 270
The Role of Gender......Page 271
Description of Dataset......Page 272
Does Parent Support for Extracurricular Math/Science Activities Vary by Sex and Grade?......Page 273
Are Parents’ Math-Promotive Behaviors and Attitudes About Math Related to Children’s Later Self-Perceptions of Ability and Actual Achievement?......Page 274
Are Parents’ Gender Stereotypes about Math Related to Children’s Later Interest in Math?......Page 275
CONCLUSION......Page 277
References......Page 278
13 Gender Effects on Mathematics Achievement......Page 282
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT......Page 284
SELF-REGULATION, GENDER, AND MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT......Page 285
Theoretical Framework......Page 289
Questionnaire Development......Page 290
GENDER EFFECTS ON MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT: MEDIATING ROLES OF STATE AND TRAIT SELF-REGULATION AND TEST ANXIETY......Page 291
Measures......Page 293
Mathematics Achievement......Page 294
First-Order Factor Model......Page 295
Third-Order Factor Model......Page 296
Structural Model with State Measures......Page 297
Structural Model with Trait Measures......Page 298
GENDER GAP IN MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT: LOOKING INTO THE SOURCES OF THE GAP......Page 299
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......Page 301
APPENDIX A......Page 302
AUTHORS’ NOTE......Page 304
References......Page 305
14 Gender Differences in Mathematics Self-Efficacy Beliefs......Page 312
How Self-Efficacy Beliefs Are Created......Page 313
How Self-Efficacy Beliefs Influence Human Functioning......Page 315
Self-Efficacy and Related Constructs......Page 316
MATHEMATICS SELF-EFFICACY......Page 318
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MATHEMATICS SELF-EFFICACY......Page 319
CONCLUSION......Page 323
References......Page 326
BACKGROUND ISSUES......Page 334
SOCIALIZATION ISSUES......Page 336
COGNITIVE PROCESSING......Page 339
OUR WORK......Page 341
NEW AVENUES FOR RESEARCH......Page 344
CONCLUSION......Page 346
References......Page 348
Author Index......Page 351
Subject Index......Page 363
